ON 


MILITARY  SCIENCE 


\ 


NOTES 


iUi  u 


ITARY  SCIENC 


THE  ART  OF  WAR. 


JOSEPH   M.  CALIFF, 
Captain  3D  U.  S.  Arthxery. 

(THIRD    EDITION.) 


JAMES  J.  CHAPMAN, 

WASHINGTON. 
189S. 


Copyright,  1891, 

BY 

JOSEPH    M.  CALIFF. 


PREFACE. 


'T^HESE  Notes  were  prepared  in  an  abbreviated  form  for  use  in 
-*■  connection  with  a  course  of  lectures  on  Military  Science  and 
the  Art  of  War,  delivered  to  the  Senior  Class  at  the  State  University 
of  Iowa. 

The  absence  of  a  text-book  made  something  of  the  kind  necessary, 
and  the  success  that  has  attended  the  distribution  of  hektograph 
copies  of  these  Notes  seems  to  indicate  that  they  are  in  the  right 
direction. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  in  these  lectures,  which  are  supple- 
mental to  four  years  of  drill,  to  teach  the  purely  technical  part  of 
the  military  profession.  The  limited  time  available  for  military  in- 
struction at  colleges  indicated  to  me  that  the  instruction  should  be 
broad  and  general.  The  aim,  therefore,  has  been  to  teach  these 
young  men  how  armies  are  organized  and  their  affairs  administered  ; 
how  men  are  handled  in  actual  warfare,  and  how  battles  are  fought  ; 
and,  in  addition,  something  about  the  material  employed  in  war — 
guns,  ammunition,  torpedoes  and  explosives :  in  short,  to  give 
them  a  speaking  acquaintance  with  the  Science  and  Art  of  War. 

Nothing  especially  original  is  claimed  for  the  subject-matter  of  the 
book.     The  authorities  consulted  have  been   so  many   and  various 

(iii) 


1711087 


IV  •  PREFACE. 

that  no  atteiu{)t  has  been  made  to  cite  llieni.  I  am,  however,  great- 
ly indebted  to  Captain  James  Chester,  3d  U.  y.  Artiller^^  for  valu- 
able hints  and  suggestions,  and  to  1st  Lieutenant  D.  A.  Howard,  U. 
S.  Ordnance  Department,  for  important  data. 

JosKPH  M.  Califf, 
Ixt  Licul,  .id  U  IS.  Ar/iUcri/. 
State  Univeu.sitv  ok  Iowa, 
November  12,  ISSS. 


TO   THE  SECOND   EDITION. 


The  subject-matter  of  this  edition  remains  substantially  the  same 
as  in  the  first,  but  in  order  to  keep  pace  with  the  progress  of  the 
military  art,  it  has  been  necessary  to  practically  rewrite  much  that 
then  appeared  regarding  small  arms,  powders,  and  military  material 
generally  ;  besides,  two  short  chapters  upon  Transport  and  Recon- 
naissance have  been  added. 

July  s,  JSUl. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE. 

CHAPTER    I. 
Army  Organization 1 

CHAPTER    II. 
Army  Administration 14 


ERRATA 


Page  27 — Second  line,  for  16  read  75. 

Page  144 — Eighth  line,  between  are  and  called  interpolate 
when  mounted. 

Page  164 — At  end  of  third  paragraph,  add  in  time  of  war 
the  Summary  Court  is  replaced  by  the  Field  Officer  s 
Court. 


CHAPTER   X. 
Cannon 89 

(V) 


VI  CONTENTS. 

I'AUE. 

CHAPTER    XI. 
Practical  Gunnery 105 

CHAPTER    XII. 
Pyrotkciiny  and  Projectiles 112 

CHAPTER    XIII. 
Fortifications 118 

CHAPTER    XIV. 
Siege  Operations 120 

CHAPTER   XV. 
Torpedoes  and  Suhmarine  Mines 131 

CHAPTER   XVI. 

Grand  Guards,  Sentinels,  and  Outposts 142 

CHAPTER    XVII. 

Military  Reconnaissance 149 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 
Military  Transport  and  Supply 153 

CHAPTER    XIX. 
Troops  in  Campaign 156 

CHAPTER    XX. 
Military  Law  and  Courts  .Martial IGO 

CHAPTER    XXI. 

The  KRA(;-JoR<iENSEN  Rifle 1U7 

Military  Rifles,  189G 171 

Ammunition  Supply 172 


CHAPTER   I. 
ARMY  ORGANIZATION. 

A  MULTITUDE  of  men  do  not  constitute  an 
army.  Even  with  arms  in  their  hands  and 
uniforms  upon  their  backs  they  still  may  be  a  mob. 
The  work  of  converting  this  raw  human  material! 
into  a  fitting  instrument  of  war  may  be  considered 
under  three  heads:  Organization,  Drill,  and  Disci- 
pline. 

Organization  may  be  said,  in  a  general  way,  to  be 
the  forming  from  all  the  elements  brought  together, 
one  body,  every  member  of  which  may  be  instantly 
put  in  motion  by  an  impulse  communicated  from 
the  head.  More  specifically,  it  is  the  division  and 
subdivision  of  the  mass  into  parts  and  into  units ; 
the  fixing  of  the  chain  of  responsibility  from  the 
general-in-chief  down  to  the  commander  of  the 
smallest  subdivision  ;  the  placin.</  of  each  man  of 
the  multitude,  and  then  providing  for  his  mainte- 
nance— for  his  arms  and  ammunition,  for  his  food 
and  clothing. 

Organization  is  of  two  kinds — tactical  and  admin- 
istrative ;  tactical,  that  which  relates  to  the  prepara- 

(1) 


2  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

tion  of  men  for  the  tield  of  V>attle  ;  administrative 
t!iat  which  looks  to  their  maintenance  in  })eace  as 
well  as  in  war. 

Drill  is  the  familiarizing  of  the  individual  soldier 
with  his  weapon  ;  making  him  acquainted  with  its 
capabilities  and  enabling  him  to  obtain  from  it  its 
maximum  effect,  and,  in  addition,  teaching  him  to 
act  in  harmony  and  intelligently  with  otiier  indi- 
vidual soldiers  to  the  accomplishment  of  a  common 
purpose. 

Discipline,  as  understood  in  a  military  sense,  may 
be  said  to  be  the  perfect  subordination  of  each  and 
every  individual  of  the  multitude  to  the  will  of  the 
superior;  the  willing,  spontaneous  and  unquestioned 
obedience  of  all  to  the  commands  of  the  chief.  It 
is  the  "  seasoning  "  process  for  the  raw  recruit ;  it  is 
the  teaching  of  that  self-control  which  enables  a 
man  to  preserve  his  coolness  and  equanimity  at  all 
times,  and  under  the  most  startling  and  unlooked- 
for  conditions. 

But  it  takes  time  and  actual  experience  in  the 
field  to  make  the  recruit  a  valuable  soldier.  "The 
value  of  the  veteran  consists  as  much  in  his  hal)itual 
expertness  in  the  routine  of  the  camp  and  the  march 
as  calinne^^s  and  confidence  under  fire." 

Recruiting.  Among  barbarous  i)eo[)le  all  men 
;ire  warriors,  and  even  in  a  rude  state  of  agriculture 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  6 

every  man  may  serve  a  part  of  the  year  as  a  soldier; 
but  a  more  civilized  state  of  society  and  advanced 
stage  in  the  military  art  require  that  a  portion  of 
the  population  should  be  permanently  given  to  the 
military  service. 

There  are  two  general  methods,  among  civilized 
nations,  for  obtaining  men  for  an  army — by  Con- 
scription and  Voluntarij  Enlistment.  Conscription  is 
now  the  prevailing  method  among  all  the  great 
powers — England  and  the  United  States  alone  ex- 
cepted. 

Under  the  method  by  conscription,  all  able-bodied 
men  from  about  twenty  to  fort}'  3'ears  of  age  are 
liable  to  military  duty,  with  certain  exceptions  for 
occupation,  etc.  A  certain  number  of  men,  depend- 
ent on  the  exigencies  of  the  times,  are  called  for 
each  year,  and  required  to  join  the  colors.  The 
period  of  service  varies  from  twelve  to  twent}^  years, 
of  which  time  from  three  to  six  years  are  with  the 
colors  ;  then  follows  about  the  same  period  on  fur- 
lough, or  in  the  first  reserve,  during  which  the  men 
may  be  recalled  at  any  time,  after  which  they  pass 
into  the  general  reserve,  and  are  called  into  service 
only  in  time  of  great  national  danger. 

The  calling  in  of  these  furloughed  men,  and  all 
the  preparation  necessary  to  enable  them  to  take 
the  field,  is  called  mobilization. 

The   proportion  of  the  popuUition   that   can    be 


4  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

spared  for  military  service  is  much  greater  in  a  rude 
than  in  a  civilized  state  of  society.  It  is  estimated 
that  one  per  cent,  of  the  population  in  a  modern 
civilized  state  may  be  diverted  to  military  purposes 
without  detriment  to  other  interests. 

In  the  United  States,  should  it  become  necessary 
for  the  general  Government  to  raise  a  military  force 
in  excess  of  the  regular  establishment,  a  proclama- 
tion would   issue  by  the  President  calling  for  the 
required  number  of  men  for  a  specified  time.     This 
number  would  be  apportioned  to  the  different  States- 
upon  the  basis  of  their  Congressional  representation, 
and  the  State,  in  turn,  would  designate  the  number 
to  be  supplied  by  each  Congressional  district  and 
smaller  subdivision,  upon  the  basis  of  population. 
The  quota  assigned  to  a  State  would,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, be  filled  by  volunteers,  either  from  the  organ- 
ized State  militia  or  by  fresh  enrollment.     When  a 
regiment   or   battery   had   completed  its   organiza- 
tion, and   its  officers   had   been   appointed  by  the 
Governor,  a   mustering  officer,   designated   by  the 
Government,  would  formally  accept  and  muster  the 
individual  officers  and  men  into  the  United  States 
service.     Failing  to  fill  its  quota  by  voluntary  enlist- 
ment, resort  wimld  be  hail  to  conscription,  in  which 
case  the  number  of  men  required  of  each  town  or 
precinct  would,  under  Federal  supervision,  be  chosen 
by    lot  fi-om   among   the  male  population  between 
certain  ages,  usually,  IS  and  45  years. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  0 

An  army  is  divided  into  two  general  classes^the 
Line  and  the  Staff.  The  Line  constitutes  the  fight- 
ing force — that  is,  all  officers  and  men  who  do  the 
.actual  fighting.  The  Staff  are  those  employed  in 
an  administrative  or  executive  capacity. 

The  fighting  force  is  composed  of  three  arms — 
■Cavalry,  Artillery  and  Infantry.  By  an  arm  we 
mean  the  union  of  those  combatants  having  the 
same  mode  of  action. 

The  Infantry  constitutes  the  main  Vjody  of  an 
army,  and  is  organized  as  follows: 

The  Company  is  the  unit.  The  number  of  men 
per  company  varies  in  different  services.  The  war 
strength  of  a  company  in  our  own  service  is  one 
hundred  ;  in  England,  one  hundred  and  twenty-five, 
while  in  the  German  service,  and  in  most  other 
European  armies,  it  is  about  two  hundred  and  fifty. 

The  Battalion,  of  from  four  to  eight  Companies, 
is  the  tactical  unit,  and  is  the  proper  command  of  a 
Major.  In  all  armies,  except  our  own,  the  battalion 
organization  prevails. 

The  Keg-iment,  in  the  United  States  service,  is 
the  tactical  unit ;  but  in  all  foreign  armies  it  con- 
sists of  from  tw^o  to  four  battalions,  with  a  Colonel, 
a  Lieutenant-Colonel,  and  as  many  Majors  as  there 
are  battalions.  In  all  European  armies  there  is  at- 
tached to  each  battalion,  or  regiment,  one  or  more 
■"  depot  companies,"  to  which  all  recruits  are  sent, 


6  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

and  where  they  receive  a  certain  amount  of  training- 
before  being  sent  to  join  their  companies  in  tlie  field. 

The  Brigade  consists  of  two  or  more  regiments, 
and  is  the  proper  command  of  a  Brigadier-General. 
•  The  Division  consists  of  two  or  more  brigades  of 
infantry,  a  certain  proportion  of  artillery  and  cav- 
alry, a  company  of  engineers,  and  possibly  a  signal 
detachment,  and  is  commanded  by  a  Major-Gen eral. 

The  Corps  is  composed  of  two  or  more  divisions 
of  infantry,  a  division  of  cavalry,  all  the  reserve 
artillery,  a  battalion  of  engineers,  a  signal  detach- 
ment and  a  bridge  train,  and  is  the  command  of  a 
Lieutenant-General.  The  Corps  is  the  strategical 
unit.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  small  army,  complete  in  all 
its  parts,  and  capable  of  independent  action. 

Two  or  more  Corps  would  constitute  an  army,  the 
proper  commander  of  which  would  be  a  General. 

Artillery.  The  unit  is  the  Battery,  usually  of 
six  guns,  and,  roughly  estimated,  with  twenty  horses 
and  twenty -five  men  per  gun.  The  proportion  of 
artillery  varies  from  two  to  four  guns  per  thousand 
infantry,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  infan- 
try and  the  theatre  of  military  operations.  Poor 
infantry  needs  most  artillery,  and  an  army  operat- 
ing in  a  wooded  country  with  poor  roads  less  than 
if  the  opposite  conditions  prevailed. 

The  artillery  belonging  to  an  army  is  divided  into 
two  classes — Mounted  and  Horse  Artillery.     Mounted 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  7 

artillery  serves  with  infantry,  the  cannoneers  riding 
upon  the  carriages.  In  the  Horse  Artillery  the  guns 
are  lighter,  the  cannoneers  are  iiiounted  on  horse- 
back, rapid  movement  is  possible,  and  it  is  intended 
to  serve  with  cavalry.  Machine-guns  would  find 
their  proper  field  in  this  service. 

The  artillery  allowed  to  a  Corps  is  divided  into 
two  parts.  One,  usually  aljout  half,  is  attached  to 
the  divisions,  while  the  remainder  is  retained  under 
the  direct  control  of  the  Corps  Commander,  and 
constitutes  the  Corps  Artillery,  or  the  Artillery  Re- 
serve. 

In  addition  to  the  artillery  serving  with  an  army 
in  the  field,  artillery  troops  for  the  service  of  heavy 
guns  in  forts,  and  for  siege-guns,  will  be  required. 
These  troops  have  essentially  the  same  organization 
as  tiie  mounted  artillery,  but  are  armed  as  infantry. 

Cavalry.  The  unit  is  the  troop,  usually  of  about 
fifty  men.  Two  troops  form  a  squadron,  and  with 
from  four  to  six  squadrons  to  a  regiment.  It  is 
grouped  into  brigades  and  divisions  like  the  infantry^ 
with  a  varying  number  of  subdivisions  to  each  larger 
division.  The  cavalry  is  usually  assigned,  as  is  the 
artillery,  to  the  divisions  of  infantry,  with  a  Corps 
reserve  ;  but  it  may  be  formed  into  a  corps  by  itself. 

The  General  Staff  of  an  army  consists  of — 

The  Adjutant-General's  Department — is  the 
department  of  orders,  correspondence,  records  and 
statistics. 


8  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

The   Inspector-General's    Department — is    the 

department  through  which  the  General  watches  over 
the  discipline,  drill  and  general  efficiency  of  the 
troops;  it  examines  the  accounts  of  disbursing 
officers. 

The  Jiirtse-Advocate  General's  Department — 
is  the  law  department  of  on  army.  It  advises  the 
General  as  to  the  technical  correctness  of  court  mar- 
tial records  and  rulings  ;  assi-sts  him  with  its  advice 
on  all  questions  of  law  submitted  by  him,  and  repre- 
sents the  United"  States  in  all  military  trials  before 
either  military  or  civil  tribunals. 

The  Quartermaster's  Department — sui>jilies  the 
clothing  for  the  men  ;  the  hor.ses,  mules  and  wagons  ; 
forage  for  all  animals;  tenls,  camp  equipage  and 
fuel ;  has  charge  of  all  transportation  by  land  and 
water  ;  and  everything  that  concerns  "  the  outward 
comfort  of  the  men  or  the  inward  comfort  of  the 
animals  "  comes  within  its  juri.sdiction.  It  is  by  far 
the  most  complicated  and  expensive  department  of 
an  army. 

The  Suhsistenee  Department — purchases,  col- 
lects and  issues  all  food  fi)r  the  men,  and  provides 
for  sale  various  articles  of  provision  and  .^mall  stores 
not  on  the  regular  supply  tables. 

The  Medical  Department  —  provides  medical 
su[)plics  of  all  kinds  :  has  charge  of  all  hospitals  and 
aiijl'ulanccs.  and  \]\v  cai'e  of  all   sick  and  wounded. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  9 

The  Pay  Department  —  provides  for  the  pay- 
ment of  troops  at  stated  intervals;  is  charged  with 
the  settlement  of  the  money  accounts  of  the  soldier  ; 
pays  mileage  accounts,  etc. 

The  Ordnance  Department — supplies  the  arms, 
ammunition  and  accoutrements  for  the  infantry- 
man ;  the  guns,  carriages,  harness,  ammunition  and 
equipments  for  the  artillery  and  cavalry. 

The  Engineer  Department  —  is  charged  with 
the  planning  and  construction  of  forts  and  field 
works;  the  preparation  of  ground  for  defense;  the 
repair  of  roads  and  laying  of  bridges.  Engineer 
troops  have  the  infantry  organization  and  arms. 

The  Signal  Department — is  charged  with  the 
erection  and  maintenance  of  all  field-telegraph  lines, 
and  all  means  for  the  communication  of  orders  and 
information  between  the  separated  parts  of  an  army. 

The  Provost-Marshal's  Department  —  has  an 
organization  only  in  time  of  war,  and  has  the  care 
of  all  prisoners;  officiates  at  executions,  and  has 
charoe  of  the  detective  and  secret-service  business 
of  an  army. 

To  recapitulate  the  matter  of  organization,  we 
have  first — 

The  Company,  with  a  C'a]:)tain  and  two  or  three 
Lieutenants,  one  first  and  four  duty  Sergeants,  four 
or  more  Corporals,  two  musicians  and  say  eighty- 
six  privates,  or  a  total  strength  of  one  hundred. 


10  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

The  Regiment,  of  ten  or  twelve  companies,  witli 
a  Colonel,  a  Lieutenant-Colonel,  one  or  more  Majors, 
an  Adjutant,  and  a  Quartermaster,  with  the  rank  of 
First  Lieutenant ;  a  Surgeon  with  the  rank  of  Major, 
and  an  Assistant  Surgeon  with  the  rank  of  First 
Lieutenant,  and  sometimes  a  Chaplain  with  the 
nominal  rank  of  Captain  ;  a  Sergeant-\Lijor,  a  Hos- 
pital Steward  and  a  Quartermaster  Sergeant. 

The  Brigade,  of  two  or  more  regiments,  with  a 
Brigadier-Cieneral  in  command,  who  has,  as  his  indi- 
vidual statf,  an  Adjutant-General,  a  Quartermaster, 
a  Commissary,  all  Captains,  a  Surgeon,  usually 
known  as  the  Brigade  Surgeon. 

The  Division,  of  two  or  more  brigades,  com- 
manded by  a  Major-General,  who  has  the  same  staff 
as  a  brigade  commander,  with  the  possible  addition 
of  a  Provost-Marshal,  and  with  the  exception  that 
the  Adjutant-General,  Quartermaster  and  Commis- 
sary sliouM  have  the  rank  of  ]Major. 

The  Corps,  of  two  or  more  divisions,  with  a  Lieu- 
tenaut-General  in  command,  who  would  have  the 
same  stafl'  as  a  division  commander,  with  the  several 
rank  of  Lieutenant-Colonel,  and  known  as  the  Chief 
Quartermaster,  Chief  Commissar}'',  Medical  Director 
and  hispector-General,  and,  in  addition,  would  liave 
upon  his  staff  the  commantler  of  the  Corps  Reserve 
Artillery,  as  Chief  of  Artillery,  and  an  Engineer 
officer. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  11 

An  Army,  of  two  or  more  Corps,  should  have  a 
General  in  command,  who  would  have  a  staff  iden- 
tical with  that  of  a  Corps  commander,  except  that 
the  officers  above  mentioned  should  have  the  rank 
of  Colonel. 

The  above  is  given  as  the  proper  rank  of  the 
various  commanders.  In  our  service  the  rule  has 
never  been  followed.  Washington,  Grant,  Sherman 
and  Sheridan  are  the  only  full  Generals  we  have 
had,  and  they  also  the  only  full  Lieutenant-Gen- 
erals. 

An  army  Corps  of  twenty-five  thousand  men, 
under  our  military  system,  might  have  the  follow- 
ing organization  : 

Two  divisions  of  infantry,  eight  batteries  of 
mounted  artillery  and  four  of  horse  artillery,  two 
divisions  of  cavalry,  a  battalion  of  engineers,  signal 
detachment,  etc.,  divided  as  follows  : 

Infantry — 2  divisions,  6  brigades,  18  regiments,  or  ....  18,000 
Artillery — divisional,  of   4  mounted  and   2   horse  batteries, 

and  an  equal  number  as  corps  artillery,  or  72  guns  and  .  1,800 
Cavalry — 2  divisions,  each  of  two  brigades  of  2   regiments 

of  6  squadrons,  or 4,800 

Enyinvers — 1  battalion  ;  signal  detachment,  hosfiital  corps,  etc.  400 


Total 25  000 

Under  recent  orders  the  enlisted  strength  of  the 
army  is  distributed  as  follows — (two  companies  of 


12  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

•each  iiifantrv,  and  two  troops  of  each  cavahy  regi- 
ment having  only  a  skeleton  organization) : 

Infantry — 25  regiments  (8  companies  of  CO  men  and  5  N.  C.  S.)  12,125 
Cavalry — 10  regiments  ( 10  troops  of  60  men  and  5  N.  C.  S.)  6,030 
Artillery— b  regiments  ( 12batteries  of  60  men  and  5  N.  C.  S.)     3,675 


Total  for  line  of  the  Army 21,850 

Engineer  Battalion .  500 

Ordnance  Dei>artment 450 

West  Point  Detachments,  (including  Army  Service  men 
in   the   Quartermaster's    Dept.  and    Military  Academy 

Band) 224 

Prison  guard  (Fort  Leavenworth) 110 

Ordnance  Sergeants 90 

Commissary  Sergeants 120 

Post  Quartermaster  Sergeants 80 

Depot  Detachments 315 

Indian  Scouts 476 

2,365 

Recruits  at  Depot 785 

Authorized  Enlisted  Strength 25,000 

Note. — In  addition  to  tlie  above,  there  are  50  Signal  Service  and 
721  Hospital  Corps  men  not  included  in  the  allowed  strength  of  the 
army.  The  two  light  batteries  of  each  artillery  regiment  are  allowed 
^5  men  each.  The  number  of  Indian  Scouts  has  since  been  reduced 
to  150,  and  authority  given  to  enlist  8  troops  of  Indian  cavalry  and 
19  companies  of  Indian  infantry  to  take  the  place  of  an  equal  num- 
ber of  organizations  skeletonized. 


NOTES   ON    MILITARY   SCIENCE. 


IS- 


Rank  in  the  army  is  fixed  as  follows : 


1.  General. 

2.  Lieuteaant-General. 

3.  Major-General. 

4.  Brigadier-General. 

5.  Colonel. 

6.  Lieutenant-Colonel. 

7.  Major. 

8.  Captain. 

9.  First  Lieutenant. 

10.  Second  Lieutenant. 

11.  Cadet. 

12.  Sergeant  Major. 


13.  Regimental       Quartermaster- 

Sergeant. 

14.  Ordnance,    Commissary     and 

Post  Quartermaster  Ser- 
geants, Hospital  Steward, 
Chief  Musician,  Principal 
Musician,  Chief  Trumpeter 
and  Saddler-Sergeant. 

15.  First  Sergeant. 

16.  Sergeant. 

17.  Corporal. 

18.  Private. 


Its  strength  is  limited  by  law  to  25,000,  exclusive 
of  tiie  Signal  and  Hospital  Cor[)s. 

The  military  force  of  the  United  States  consists 
of  the  regular  army ;  organized  militia  or  State 
troops,  about  106,000;  and  the  unorganized  militia^ 
estimated  about  7,700,000. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ARMY  ADMINISTRATION. 

ARMY  administration  relates  not  only  to  the  ques- 
tions of  supply  of  an  army,  but  to  the  entire  ad- 
ministration of  its  affairs  in  peace  as  well  as  in  war. 

Nothing  definite  is  known  of  the  methods  em- 
ployed in  ancient  times  to  supply  armies,  although 
for  Csesar  it  is  claimed  that  he  had  a  commissariat, 
and  did  not  depend  upon  the  foraging  of  the  indi- 
vidual soldier.  Still  it  was  almost  wholly  a  commis- 
sariat of  plunder,  although  an  official,  orderly  and 
calculated  one.  During  the  Middle  Ages  armies 
subsisted,  friend  and  foe  alike,  from  off  the  theatre 
of  operations.  They  came  together  to  fight,  then 
scattered  to  subsist.  War  in  those  da3's  meant  pil- 
lage, and  was  cruel  to  the  last  degree. 

With  standing  armies,  and  the  necessity  of  strict 
discipline,  came  an  organized  commissariat.  Under 
Frederick  the  Great  an  army  became  wholly  inde- 
})endent  of  the  resources  of  the  invaded  territory. 
Subsisting  from  an  enemy's  country  is  one  of  the 
rights  of  war,  but  subsisting  by  pillage  is  quite  a 

(14) 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  15 

different  thing.  In  the  former  case  it  is  done  b}' 
properl}'  ai)pointed  officers  and  under  military  re- 
strictions, and  the  supplies  gathered  are  issued  and 
accounted  for  in  the  regular  way. 

The  Staflf,  as  has  been  said,  is  charged  with  the 
questions  of  administration  and  suppl}'.  The  officers 
of  the  Staff  departments  have,  for  the  furtherance  of 
discipline,  military  rank,  but. they  never  command 
troops  unless  specially  as.signed  thereto.  When 
thrown  together  with  troops,  an  officer  of  the  line, 
however  low  his  rank,  would  take  command,  what- 
ever might  l)e  the  rank  of  the  other. 

Correspondence.  All  official  communications 
between  an  inferior  and  a  suj)erior  pass  through  the 
hands  of  all  the  intermediate  commanders,  and  are 
returned  through  the  same  channels.  All  communi- 
cations forwarded  to  a  su{)erior  are  signed  by  the 
inferior  in  person  ;  all  those  to  an  inferior  in  rank 
are  signed  by  order  of  the  superior,  and  by  his 
Adjutant  or  Adjutant-General. 

Property  Accountability.  Every  article  of  pub- 
lic property,  however  small,  issued  for  use  of  troops, 
must  be  accounted  for  until  properly  disj^osed  of; 
and  all  officers  receiving  such  property  are  held  to  a 
strict  pecuniary  and  personal  responsibility  for  its 
safe-keeping.  The  clothing  issued  to  the  men  be- 
comes their  personal  property,  under  certain  restric- 
tions :    but    for  tlie  arms,  ammunition  and   equip- 


16  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

ineiits,  tools  and  utensils  of  all  kinds,  issued  for  tlie 
use  of  a  company,  the  Captain  must  receipt  and 
become  responsiljle. 

duailermaster's  Supplies — for  an  army  in  the 
tield  are  either  manufactured  by  tlie  department,  as 
in  the  case  of  clothing  and  some  other  articles,  or 
purchased  under  contract  or  in  open  market,  and 
are  gathered  together  in  depots  and  from  thence  is- 
sued to  the  corps,  division  or  brigade  Quartermasters, 
and  l\v  tliem  distributed  to  regiments,  batteries,  etc. 

Subsistence  Stores — are  purchased  by  officers  of 
this  department,  in  the  large  markets  of  the  country, 
and,  like  quartermasters'  stores,  are  collected  in  large 
(quantities  at  safe  points  in  rear  of  the  army,  and 
from  thence  issued  to  the  Commissary  officers  serving 
with  troops  in  the  field. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  rations  are  issued 
to  troops  every  ten  days.  In  campaigns,  or  when 
starting  on  a  march,  the  men  carry  u])on  their  })er- 
sons  two,  three,  and  sometimes  five  days'  rations. 
On  marches,  whenever  practicable,  the  beef  ration 
is  driven  on  the  hoof. 

Ordnance  Stores — with  the  excepticn  of  powder, 
which  is  puiehased,  are  nearly  all  manufactured  at 
government  arsenals,  and,  like  all  other  supplies, 
sent  to  depots  and  them-e  to  the  front. 

The  Medical  Department — is  charged  with  im- 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  17 

portant  and  exacting  duties.  The  whole  fighting 
power  of  an  army  depends  on  the  health  of  the  indi- 
vidual soldier.  As  has  been  said,  each  regiment,  or 
independent  organization,  has  its  medical  officer  and 
assistants,  and  at  each  headquarters  the  department 
is  represented  by  an  officer  of  the  department. 

With  each  regiment  there  is  a  temporary  or  im- 
provised hospital  for  the  reception  and  care  of  those 
taken  suddenly  ill,  or  only  likely  to  be  temporarily 
disabled.  With  each  Corps,  usually,  there  is  a  Field 
Hospital,  where  the  more  serious  cases  are  taken, 
and  to  which  are  sent  the  more  seriously  wounded 
from  the  field  of  battle.  Here  most  of  the  surgical 
operations  and  amputations  are  performed.  Besides 
the  Field,  there  are  General  Hospitals,  located 
usually  in  some  city,  which  receive  all  the  badly 
wounded  and  all  those  likely  to  require  long  treat- 
ment. Each  of  these  hospitals  has  a  surgeon  in 
charge,  with  a  staff  of  assistants,  nurses  and  attend- 
ants. 

On  the  field  of  battle,  as  near  the  fighting  line  as 
may  be,  the  regimental  surgeons  are  ready  to  give 
such  aid  to  the  wounded  as  they  may  at  once  re- 
quire;,  wounds  are  dressed,  bandages  applied,  and, 
in  case  of  shattered  limbs,  amputations  performed. 
In  an  infantry  company  there  are  four  men  desig- 
nated as  litter-bearers,  whose  duty  it  is  to  bring  back 
to  this  point  all  who  are  unable  to  get  there  by  them- 


18  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

selves.  Here  the  ambulances  are  waiting  to  convey 
all  who  are  unable  to  walk  to  the  Field  Hospital. 

Each  of  the  other  staff  de[)artments  is  re])resented 
at  division,  corps  and  army  headquarters  by  an  offi- 
cer who  is  charged  with  the  administrative  sui)er- 
vision  of  liis  own  de|)artment. 

The  Organization  of  Trains, — which  falls  to 
the  Quartermaster's  department,  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  duties  pertaining  to  the  supply  of  an  army. 
The  elements  that  enter  into  the  problem  are  the 
strength  and  composition  of  the  army ;  the  charac- 
ter and  extent  of  the  operations ;  the  nature  of  the 
country  operated  in  ;  the  soil,  with  special  reference 
to  the  effect  of  rain  thereon  ;  if  streams  have  to  be 
crossed,  the  possibility  of  bridges  being  destroyed, 
and  the  time  required  to  repair  them.  These,  and 
many  otlier  elements  cf  uncertainty,  must  be  kej)t 
in  vieWj  and,  as  much  as  po.ssible,  provided  against. 

Separate  trains  of  wagons  must  be  provided  for 
nmmunition  for  infantry,  for  cavalry,  for  artiller}', 
for  forage,  for  rations  and  for  baggage.  These 
wagons  are  divided  into  two  general  divisions — 
Division  and  Corps  Trains.  The  ionner  carry  such 
supplies  of  ammunition,  forage  and  rations  as  may 
be  needed  at  unce,  and  must  accomjiany  the  troops, 
while  the  Corps  or  Reserve  train  may  move  in  roar 
of  the  army. 

.\n  army  wauon  will  carry  2,000  jiounds  over  all 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  19 

roads,  and  five  days'  forage  for  its  six  mules.  One 
tliousand  rounds  of  .45  caliber  rifle  ammunition 
weigh  about  100  pounds :  one  wagon  will  carry 
20,000  rounds. 

Each  soldier  should  have  at  least  160  rounds — 80 
on  his  person,  or  immediately  available,  and  80  in 
the  wagons.  AVith  a  repeating  rifle  this  number 
would  have  to  be  considerably  increased,  but  as  the 
caliber  will  be  reduced  with  the  introduction  of  such 
an  arm,  the  weights  will  remain  about  the  same. 

The  artillery  will  require  400  pounds  per  gun 
— one-half  in  the  chests  and  one-half  in  wagons.  A 
round  for  our  3.2-inch  field-gun  will  weigh  about 
17  pounds.  With  (>  guns  i)er  battery,  each  200 
rounds  equal  20,000  pounds — 10  wagon-loads  per 
battery.  The  horse  artillery  will  carry  less  ammu- 
nition :  but  by  removing  the  rear  chests  of  the  cais- 
sons, a  certain  amount  of  forage  can  be  carried. 

Rations  : — The  army  field-ration,  exclusive  of 
meat,  will  weigh,  with  necessary  packages,  about 
two  pounds,  or  one  wagon-load  per  day  per  thou- 
sand men. 

Forage : — The  ordinary  allowance  is  14  pounds 
of  hay  for  a  horse  or  mule,  and  for  a  horse  12,  and 
for  a  mule  9  pounds  of  grain.  In  the  field  the  allow- 
ance is  8  pounds  per  day  per  animal,  or  four  wagons 
per  day  per  thousand  animals. 


20  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

Baggage : — One  wagon  to  each  regiment,  one  to 
each  brigade  and  division,  and  two  to  corps  head- 
quarters— thirty-six  in  all. 

An  army  corps,  then,  of  25,000  men,  organized  as 
we  have  supposed,  to  take  the  field,  with  proper 
amount  of  ammunition  and  five  days'  supply  of  food 
and  forage  in  its  wagons,  wouW  require — 

For  infantry  ammunition,  18,000  men 72  wagons. 

For  cavalry  carbine  aminunition,  4,800  men 10 

For  artillery  ammunition,  12  batteries       ....     •   .    .  120 

For  rations  for  5  days,  25,0C0  men 125 

For  forage  for  5  days,  4,800  horses 96 

For  baggage 36 

468 

The  U.  S.  Army,  ration  is,  by  weight : 

Meat,  16  oz.  average  beef  and  pork. 

Flour,  18  oz.  or  18  oz.  bread  in  lieu. 

Fresh  vegetables,  16  oz.  (potatoes,  80,  onions   20   per   cent.) 

Beans,  2.4  oz.  or  1.6  oz.  rice  in  lieu. 

Coffee,  1.6  oz.  or  .32  oz.  tea  in  lieu. 

Sugar,  2.4  oz. 

Pepper.  .04  oz. 

Salt,  .6  oz. 

Vinegar  .8  oz. 

3.65  lbs. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  21 

Weight  carried  by  soldiers  in  the  U.  S.  service  is : 

R'fle  and  bayonet 9.50  lbs. 

Belt .50  lbs. 

80  rounds  ammunition 8.00  lbs. 

18.00  lbs. 

2  days'  full  rations 5.30  lbs. 

Utensils  3.00  lbs. 

Canteen  filled 3.75  lbs. 

12.05  lbs. 

1  piece  shelter  tent 2.00  lbs. 

1  blanket •   5.20  lbs. 

1  overcoat      •     ...  8.50  lbs. 

1  pair  shoes .  3.00  lbs. 

1  pair  drawers .75  lbs. 

1  shirt 1.00  lbs. 

1  pair  stockings 25  lbs. 

20.70  lbs. 

Total  weight  carried,  fully  equipped 50.80  lbs. 

Weight  carried  by  English  soldier 57.00  lbs. 

Weight  carried  by  Italian  soldier b2.00  lbs. 

Weight  carried  by  German  soldier 55.00  lbs. 

Weight  carried  by  French  soldier 50 -f-  lbs- 

The  Roman  soldiers  are  said  to  have  carried  a 
weight  of  quite  100  pounds,  including  their  pro- 
visions, weapons  and  armor. 


CHAPTER   III. 
LINES  AND  ORDERS  OF  BATTLE. 

ANCIENT   FORMATIONS. 

THE  infantry  formations  of  ancient  times  were  in 
heavy,  solid  masses,  intended  to  act  by  shock 
alone,  and  with  little  or  no  mobility. 

Egyptian  infantry  formed  in  heavy  square  battal- 
ions of  100  men  to  a  side,  or  10,000  in  a  body,  sub- 
divided into  fractions  of  1,000,  100  and  10.  The 
heavy  infantry  carried  a  shield  and  pike  ;  the  light 
infantry  were  archers  and  slingers. 

The  Jews  formed  their  infantry  upon  a  single 
line,  from  10  to  30  men  in  depth.  The  archers  and 
slingers  occupied  the  front  rank,  the  heavy  armed 
troops  the  rear.  The  tactical  unit  seems  to  have 
been  1,000  men,  subdivided  into  groups  of  100. 

The  Persian  infantry  was  originally  armed  only 
with  offensive  weapons,  and  formed  in  heavy  battal- 
ions of  24  to  30  men  in  depth.  Cyrus  the  Elder 
reduced  the  number  of  ranks  to  12,  and  introduced 
the  use  of  defensive  weapons.  Like  other  early 
nations,  the  Persians  followed  the  decimal  system 

(22) 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  23 

of  subdivision,  and  divided  their  troops  into  bodies 
of  10,  100,  1,000,  and  10,000  men. 

The  organization  of  the  Greek  infantry,  instead  of 
being  decimal,  was  founded  on  the  powers  of  the 
number  tivo.  The  Greek  'phalanx  was  a  corps  of 
heavy  infantry,  formed  in  a  single  line,  16  men  deep. 
Taking  as  its  primitive  element  a  file  of  16  men,  four 
of  these  files,  or  64  men,  was  the  unit  of  organization, 
corresponding  to  a  modern  company.  Four  of  these, 
or  256  men,  were  grouped  together  into  a.  body 
corresponding  to  a  small  modern  battalion.  The 
2)halanx  numbered  something  over  16,000  men,  and 
was  the  tactical  unit.  In  open  order  there  was  an 
interval  of  six  feet  between  men  each  way  ;  in  close 
order,  three  feet ;  and  in  very  close  order,  a  foot  and 
a  half.  The  phalanx  charged  in  close  order,  and 
received  a  charge  in  very  close  order.  The  heavy 
infantry  was  armed  with  the  long  pike  ;  the  light 
infantry  with  short  pike  and  shield,  or  were  archers, 
slingers,  or  darters. 

The  Roman  Legion  formed  in  three  lines,  each 
line  of  ten  companies,  of  ten  ranks  and  twelve  files, 
or  120  men,  except  the  tliird  line,  which  had  but 
half  the  number  of  files.  These,  with  1,200  light 
troops  or  skirmishers,  gave  the  legion  a  strength  of 
4,200  men.  Later  the  legion  was  divided  into  ten 
Cohorts,  or  battalions.  The  distance  between  each 
soldier  was  six  Roman  feet  each  way  (5  feet  7  inches). 


24  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

The  offensive  wea))ons  of  the  Roman  sohlier  were 
the  ])ike  and  sword  for  heavy,  and  light  spears,  jave- 
hns  and  darts  for  light  troops.  The  helmet,  breast- 
|)late,  and  siiield  constituted  their  defensive  arms. 

AVith  the  introduction  of  firearms,  depth  of  for- 
mations decreased.  In  the  time  of  Henry  IV.,  infan- 
try formed  in  ten  ranks;  with  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
six  ranks;  Louis  XIV.,  four  ranks;  and  under 
Frederick  the  Great,  three  ranks. 

The  Art  of  War  may  be  considered  under  five 
subdivisions : 

1st,  Strategy:  The  art  of  making  war  upon  the 
map ;  the  planning  of  a  campaign  ;  and  comprehends 
the  whole  theatre  of  operations  in  an  extended  sense, 
and  embraces  all  pre-arrangements  of  Avar  previous 
to  tactical  operations.  It  admits  of  success  without 
actual  tactical  collision. 

2d,  Grand  Tactics :  Is  the  art  of  moving  an 
army  on  the  field  of  battle  ;  of  j)0sting  the  troops 
according  to  the  accidents  of  the  ground  ;  of  putting 
them  into  action  at  the  proper  time.  It  is  the  actual 
fighting  upon  the  ground,  in  contra-distinction  to 
planning  upon  the  map.  Its  operations  may  extend 
over  a  field  miles  in  extent. 

3d,  Logistics:  Is  the  art  of  moving  armies,  and 
includes  all  the  means  adopted  to  carry  out  the  plans 
of  Strategy  and  Grand  Tactics  ;  the  order  and  de- 
tails of  iiiai'chcs.  cani])S,  quartering  and    sup}»lying 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  25 

troops.  "Strateojy  decides  w/i en;  to  act;  Logistics 
brings  them  to  the  point,  and  Grand  Tactics  decides 
the  manner  of  execution." 

4th,  Minor  Tactics :  The  tactics  of  tlie  three  arms  ; 
all  operations  of  detachments,  such  as  relate  to  con- 
voys, foraging,  and  affairs  of  advance  guards. 

Tlie  term  Tactics  is  often  confounded  with  that  of 
Drill.  Tactics  mean  something  more  than  mere 
drill.  Our  name  for  the  manual  of  the  arm  and  tlie 
instructions  of  troops  is  a  misnomer.  It  is  a  drill- 
book,  and  not  tactics,  properly  speaking.  In  a  broad 
and  true  sense,  tactics  mean  the  proper  methods 
and  means  of  using  troops :  how  to  fit  them  to  the 
ground  they  occupy  ;  how  and  where  to  post  them 
in  any  given  position  so  as  to  obtain  the  maximum 
advantage  ;  how  to  attack  or  defend  such  position  ; 
the  formations  of  the  troops  and  the  regulation  of 
the  fire.  A  perfect  drill-master  is  not  necessarily  a 
tactician. 

5th,  Art  of  the  Engineer :  Relates  to  the  prepar- 
ation of  ground  either  for  defense  or  offense,  also  the 
building  and  destruction  of  bridges,  roads,  etc.,  and 
the  conduct  of  siege  operations. 

Line  of  Battle :  Troops  placed  upon  the  same 
line,  wdiether  deployed  or  in  column  of  attack ; 
formed  with  proper  tactical  intervals  and  distances, 
either  with  or  without  a  particular  object  in  view 
for  the  future. 


26 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 


Order  of  Battle  :  Is  more  than  a  reunion  of  lines  ; 
it  is  the  general  and  combined  disposition  of  troops 
of  different  kinds,  grouped  together  for  a  specific 
purpose,  including  an  intention  to  execute  a  certain 
manoeuvre. 

In  the  Greek  order  of  battle,  the  troops  were 
drawn  up  in  two  equal  and  parallel  lines.  With 
the  Romans  it  was  three  lines  with  intervals,  with 
the  veterans  in  the  third  line. 

With  the  Franks,  and  the  barbarians  who  overran 
the  Roman  Empire,  the  order  of  battle  was  a  com- 
pact, wedge-shaped  mass  of  men. 

With  modern  tactics  as  many  as  twelve  different 
orders  of  battle  have  been  laid  down.  There  is  the 
parallel  order,  the  oblique  order,  the  convex  and  con- 
cave order  as  the  principal  ones.  These  terms  have 
reference  either  to  the  relative  positions  of  the  op- 
posing forces,  or  to  the  peculiar  formation  of  either 
the  attack  or  defense.  Under  the  present  conditions 
of  warfare  the  advantages  claimed  for  any  of  the  old 
orders  of  battle,  for  the  attack,  at  least,  have  been 
greatly  diminished,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  troops  will 
ever  again  be  sent  to  tlie  attack  in  any  other  than 
the  thinnest  of  deployed  lines. 

The  Column:  A  disposition  of  troops  whose 
suljdivisions  are  parallel  to  each  other  and  on  the 
same  axis.  When  they  all  remain  parallel,  but  upon 
different  axes,  they  are  said  to  be  in  echelon. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  27 


ALLOTMENT   OF   TROOPS   TO    SPACE. 

Artillery  :  A  battery  of  six  guns,  16  yards  from 
muzzle  to  muzzle,  will  occupy  87  yards  of  space. 

Cavalry  :  Each  horse  is  allowed  one  yard  lateral 
space — a  regiment  of  600  in  double  rank  would 
require  300  yards. 

Infantry :  Each  man  occupies  two  feet  of  space. 
In  single  rank  about  2,300  men  would  occupy  a 
mile  of  front  with  intervals  between  battalions.  In 
double  rank  and  in  two  lines,  allowing  for  intervals 
and  room  for  artillery,  a  division  of  9,000  would 
occupy  a  mile  of  level  ground. 

On  the  Road :  6,000  infantry  in  column  of  fours 
will  occupy  one  mile  of  road  ;  2,000  cavalry  in  col- 
umn of  fours,  well  closed,  will  cover  a  little  more 
than  a  mile  ;  24  guns,  with  their  extra  caissons,  bat- 
tery wagons  and  forges,  etc.,  one  mile,  and  100  army 
wagons,  well  closed,  one  mile. 

Our  army  corps  of  25,000  men,  if  posted  to  receive 
attack,  might  have  the  formation  indicated  in  the 
accompanying  cut.  The  infantr}'-  would  be  in  three 
lines — first  and  second  line  and  reserve — covered  by 
a  skirmish  line  with  supports.  The  divisional  artil- 
lery would  be  in  front  of  the  first  line  and  opposite 
the  center  and  flanks  ;  the  corps  artillery  with  the 
infantry  reserve.     The  cavalry  would  be  in  the  rear 


28  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENX'E. 

of  the  flanks,  accom|)anied  by  tlie  horse  artillery, 
the  reserve  cavalry  in  third  line. 

In  posting  troops  for  battle  the  topographical 
features  of  the  ground  would  determine  in  great 
measure  the  position  of  and  the  distance  between 
the  lines  ;  especially  would  this  be  the  case  with  the 
artillery,  which  would  seek  to  occupy  positions  that 
, would  give  it  a  cross-fire  in  front  of  the  infantry. 
The  second  line  should  be  near  enough  to  give 
ready  support  to  the  first,  but  tlie  distance  l^etween 
the  lines  should  be  such  that  artillery  projectiles 
missing  the  first  line  would  be  likely  to  strike  and 
rise  on  the  rebound  before  reaching  the  second. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 


29- 


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CHAPTER  IV. 

FREDERICK'S  MILITARY  SYSTEM. 

IN  the  thousand  years  following  the  downtall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  but  little  advance  was  made 
in  the  military  art,  although  it  was  a  period  of  al- 
most incessant  war.  Moslem  and  Christian  battled 
for  the  supremacy  in  Palestine,  in  Eg.ypt,  in  eastern 
and  western  Europe.  Charlemagne  reared  a  mighty 
empire  by  dint  of  conquest.  Yet,  when  gunpowder 
appeared,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  art  of  fight- 
imr  battles  was  much  the  same  as  it  had  been  in  the 
time  of  C?esar.  The  Roman  legion  seems  to  have 
been  tlie  model  upon  whicli  all  subsequent  com- 
manders based  their  formations.  The  sword  and 
shield  and  defensive  armor  were  still  in  use,  onh^ 
the  slingers  and  darters  of  the  Roman  time  had 
given  place  to  archers  and  bowmen. 

Witli  the  advent  of  gunpowder  and  the  use  of  port- 
able firearms  on  the  battle  field,  a  change  at  once 
became  necessary.  Formations  decreased  in  depth, 
the  bow  gave  way  to  tlie  musket ;  defensive  armor 
was  gradually  discarded,  and  armies  became  more 
mobile. 

(30) 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  31 

Gustavus  Adolphus  was  the  first  great  commander 
to  appreciate  the  value  of  the  musket,  and  to  depend 
upon  iis  fire  to  win  battles.  Still,  with  him,  an  army 
was  a  clumsy  machine,  slow  to  move  and  difficult  to 
take  up  new  formations  when  once  in  position. 

Marlborough,  Turrenne  and  Conde  were  soldiers 
of  the  school  of  Adolphus.  Armies  were  still  un- 
wieldy and  battles  very  ceremonious  affairs.  Oppos- 
ing armies  came  into  presence  of  each  other,  and,  as 
at  Blenheim,  deliberately  cleared  away  the  ground, 
took  up  position,  and  when  all  was  ready,  the  ball 
opened.  Under  such  conditions,  victory  usually 
rested  with  the  side  which  could  longest  supply  re- 
inforcements to  the  fighting  line. 

This  was  the  state  of  millitary  art  when  Frederick 
the  Great  appeared  upon  the  scene.  Armies  were 
yet  clumsy ;  formations  still  from  four  to  six  ranks 
iu  depth,  and  celerity  of  movement,  under  existing 
conditions,  impossible. 

Frederick's  fatlier,  "  the  crazy  king,"  was  a  born 
drill-master,  with  a  love  for  soldiers  and  a  passion- 
ate fondness  for  drill.  His  mania  was  for  drill,  to 
which  he  devoted  the  greater  part  of  liis  time  and 
energy,  and  was  known  as  "  the  great  drill-sergeant 
of  Europe."  When  he  died  in  1740,  he  left  to  young 
Frederick  by  far  the  best  drilled  army  in  Europe, 
80,000  in  number,  and  eight  millions  of  dollars  in 
the   treasurv.      Under    such    favorable   conditions 


32  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

Frederick  came  to  the  throne.  His  father  had 
kept  his  soldiers  for  show,  Frederick  proposed  to 
put  them  to  use.  With  this  object  in  view,  he  set 
out  at  once  to  remedy  the  defects  he  had  observed 
in  his  father's  training  of  the  army.  The  number 
of  ranks  was  reduced  to  three;  the  iron  ramrod 
was  introduced  ;  marksmansliip  for  the  first  time 
received  attention,  and,  above  all,  he  taught  his 
soldiers  how  to  marcJt-.  So  well  did  they  learn  this 
lesson  that  it  is  said  that  in  marching  over  the 
roughest  ground,  so  perfectly  could  they  preserve 
their  distances,  that  a  simple  wheel  of  subdivisions 
would  form  a  perfect  line  of  battle. 

With  such  a  perfect  military  instrument  ready  at 
his  hand,  Frederick  entered  upon  his  military  ca- 
reer. His  phenomenal  success  may  be  attributed  to 
two  causes :  First,  the  possession  of  an  army  thor- 
oughly well  drilled  and  efficient,  capable  of  rapid 
movement,  and  armed  with  superior  weapons  ;  whilst 
against  him  were  enemies  who  still  adhered  to  the 
old  formations,  and  still  blindly  followed  the  old 
tactical  traditions.  Second,  tlie  superior  mobility  of 
his  army  enabled  him  to  inaugurate  a  new  method 
of  attack.  Instea<l  of  following  the  old  way  of  at- 
tacking squarely  in  front,  he  introduced  the  oblique 
order  of  battle,  or,  in  other  words,  turning  an  enemy's 
flank.  The  fact  that  his  enemies  always  seemed 
willing  to  allow  him  to  take  the  initiative  and  always 


NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIE?^CE.  33 

awaited  his  attack,  made  this  movement  all  the 
more  feasible,  and  usually  carried  with  it  success. 

This  manoeuvre  was  executed  in  this  way  :  His 
troops  were  Imbitually  formed  in  two  lines.  When 
he  had  decided  upon  the  ]3oint  of  attack,  his  troops 
were  put  in  motion  towards  the  flank  selected  for 
assault,  usually  in  column  of  companies  at  full  dis- 
tance, in  two  lines,  with  a  strong  advance  guard, 
and  with  the  rear  of  his  columns  well  refused.  Ar- 
riving at  the  extremity  of  his  enemy's  line,  a  simple 
wheel  of  companies  placed  him  within  striking  dis- 
tance in  line  of  battle  across  their  flank,  as  shown 
in  the  cut.     (Fig.  1,  Plate  II.) 

Frederick's  victories  may  be  said  to  have  been  won 
by  his  superior  tactics  rather  than  by  his  strategy, 
which  was  often  open  to  criticism. 

Before  the  old  king  had  been  in  his  grave  a  year, 
Frederick  found  use  for  his  army  by  the  invasion  of 
Silesia,  and  brought  on  a  war  that  lasted,  with  a 
brief  interval  of  peace,  for  four  years.  In  this  war 
he  was  almost  uniformly  successful  ;  lie  won  the 
coveted  province  and  learned  many  valuable  mili- 
tary lessons. 

In  the  ten  years  of  peace  which  followed,  Frederick 
bent  ciU  his  energies  to  the  perfection  of  his  military 
machine,  and  to  good  purpose  ;  for  in  174(5  the  Seven 
Years'  War  broke  out,  in  which  he  found  himself 
called   U[)on   to   face  the  united  forces  of  Austria, 


34  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

Russia,  France,  Sweden,  and  Saxony.  In  the  second 
campaign  of  this  war  (1757)  five  hundred  tliousand 
men  stood  in  arms,  ready  to  march  against  Freder- 
iclc,  who  couhl  nuister  barely  two  hundred  thousand 
to  oppose  them. 

This  year,  1757,  was  for  Frederick  the  most  glo- 
rious of  his  military  career.  In  it  he  fought  four 
pitched  battles  and  won  three  decisive  victories.  As 
they  illustrate  his  peculiar  mode  of  attack,  they  will 
be  briefly  mentioned. 

The  Battle  of  Prague,  (May  6,)  opened  the 
campaign,  where  Frederick,  with  62,000  Prussians, 
faced  an  Austrian  army  of  64,000,  under  Prince 
Charles  of  Lorraine.  The  opposing  forces  came 
into  the  presence  of  each  other  before  the  city  of 
Prague,  both  on  elevated  ground,  but  separated  op- 
posite their  centre  by  a  ravine.  The  Austrian  army 
had  one  flank  secured  by  the  city  and  fortress  of 
Prague,  the  other  thrown  back  at  a  right  angle  and 
[)rotected  in  front  b}"  some  ponds.  Frederick  de- 
cided ui)on  his  fa.vorite  manoeuvre,  and  set  his  troops 
in  motion  in  two  lines  of  columns  of  companies  to- 
ward the  refused  right  wing  of  his  adversary,  at  the 
same  time  sending  his  cavalry  to  get  in  the  rear  of 
the  extreme  flank.  Forming  his  line  opposite  the 
angle  where,  unfortunately  for  the  Austrians,  there 
was  a  break  in  the  line,  he  attacked,  separating  the 
two  wings,  driving  one  from  the  field  and  the  other 
into  Prague.     (Fig.  2,  Plate  II.) 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 


35 


Pi  ATf  // 


I-'  Posit tON 


r.o-f 


^l\l     a  duitrian   Positio-- 
b  Prussi,a,n 
C  CLustricLii  Zi»e  of  Rattle 


H-^ 


36  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

The  Battle  of  Koliu  was  fought  a  month  later 
(June  IS),  where  the  odds  were  64,000  to  34,000 
against  him.  As  at  Prague,  he  set  out  to  phice  hiiJi- 
self  across  his  adversary's  flank,  moving  in  column, 
and  preceded  by  an  advance  guard.  During  the 
movement  the  main  body  came  in  too  close  proxim- 
ity to  the  Austrian  line,  and  was  greatly  annoyed  by 
their  skirmishers.  The  commander  of  one  of  the 
subdivisions  of  the  leading  wing,  without  orders, 
halted,  faced  the  enemy  and  opened  fire  ;  those  fol- 
lowing followed  suit ;  the  leading  six  battalions 
marched  on  a  hundred  yards,  when  they  too  halted 
and  opened  fire.  Frederick's  army  was  thus  divided 
into  three  parts, — the  advance  guard  forming  one. 
The  left  wing  was  driven  from  the  field  ;  the  six  iso- 
lated battalions  surrounded  and  captured,  while  the 
advance  guard  covered  the  retreat.  Frederick  lost 
14,000  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners,  nearly  all  of 
his  artillery,  and  many  wngons.     (Plate  III.) 

The  Battle  of  Leuthen  (Dec.  5)  was  the  most 
brilliant  example  of  Frederick's  flank  attack.  Tlie 
odds  against  him  were  almost  three  to  one — 80,000 
to  30,000.  The  Austrians  were  commanded  by 
Prince  Charles,  the  commander  who  had  faced  him 
at  Prague,  and  here,  as  there.  Prince  Charles  drew 
up  his  army  in  an  extended  line,  one  flank  covered 
by  a  village  and  the  other  broken  to  the  rear  at  an 
oblique  angle,  and  protected  by  a  marsh.    Frederick 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 


37 


6  bn 


Plai 


f  Ifl 


38  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

directed  his  attack  in.  two  lines  of  columns  of  com- 
panies upon  the  angle,  struck  the  enemy  at  the  se- 
lected point  and  penetrated  his  line.  Reinforce- 
ments coming  up  formed  in  the  rear  at  this  point, 
until  the  line  here  was  many  ranks  in  depth.  The 
Prussian  artillery,  taking  up  position  opposite  the 
angle,  poured  in  a  murderous  fire.  The  line  was 
again  broken.  All  attempts  to  reform  it  failed,  and 
the  Austrians  were  finally  driven  in  rout  from  the 
field,  with  the  loss  of  a  third  of  their  army,  many 
guns,  colors,  and  baggage  wagons.     (Plate  III.) 

Frederick's  adversaries  were  not  slow  to  perceive 
the  advantages  of  his  new  mode  of  attack,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Rossbach  attempted  to  turn  his  own  favor- 
ite manoeuvre  against  him.  This  was  fought  just  a 
month  previous  to  Leuthen  (Nov.  5),  with  odds  of 
of  50,000  to  22,000  against  the  Prussians.  Marshal 
Soubise  commanded  the  allies — French  and  Aus- 
trians— and  conceived  the  idea  of  flanking  his  enemy 
out  of  his  position.  Unlike  his  adversary,  Frederick 
did  not  wait  to  receive  the  blow.  As  soon  as  the 
nature  of  the  movement  was  disclosed,  he  changed 
front,  sent  his  cavalry  to  his  extreme  flank,  envel- 
oped the  head  of  the  long-drawn-out  column  of  the 
allies  as  they  approached,  beat  them  in  detail,  and 
won  a  Ijrilliant  victory  at  a  loss  of  lesstlian  six  hun- 
dred men. 

The  Seven  Years'  War  ended  Frederick's  active 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  o9 

military  career,  but  he  lived  to  see  his  system  adopted 
by  all  the  military  powers  of  Europe.  The  evils 
which  naturally  follow  the  carrying  to  excess  of 
any  system,  however  good  it  may  be,  befell  this.  In 
attempting  to  attain  perfection  in  drill,  more  im- 
portant things  were  lost  sight  of ;  the  element  of  time 
was  neglected,  and,  in  attempting  to  provide  against 
flanking  movements,  lines  became  dangerously  weak 
and  attenuated,  and  offered  a  tempting  mark  to  the 
next  enterprising  commander  who  should  appear 
upon  the  scene. 


CHAPTER  V. 
NAPOLEON'S  MILITARY  SYSTEM. 

AS  has  been  said,  Frederick's  system  was  gen- 
erally adopted  throughout  Europe,  and  so  con- 
tinued down  to  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution, 
though  the  spirit  of  the  system  may  be  said  to  have 
died  with  its  autlior.  Perfection  in  drill,  precision 
of  movement,  stiffness  and  formality,  were  the  char- 
acteristics of  European  armies  after  the  death  of 
Frederick.  Added  to  this,  in  the  endeavor  to  out- 
flank an  adversary,  or  to  guard  against  being  out- 
flanked, lines  had  become  greatly  extended — almost 
pulled  apart,  so  to  speak.  This  latter  fact  led  to  a 
radical  change  in  formations.  Up  to  this  time  there 
were  no  such  subdivisions  as  brigades,  divisions,  or 
corps.  The  army  itself  was  the  integer,  and  the 
battalion  the  chief  subdivision.  With  extended 
lines  it  Ijecame  necessary  to  divide  the  respon- 
sibilities of  command,  to  break  up  the  lines  into 
jiarts,  and  the  division  became  a  recognized  sub- 
division of  an  armv. 

Napoleon's  military  system  was  the  child  of  the 
French  Revolution.     The  armies  which  the  young 

(40) 


NOTES    OF    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  41 

French  Republic  summoned  to  defend  itself  against 
combined  Europe  were  made  up  of  the  rawest  ma- 
terial. Poorly  clad,  poorly  fed,  jjoorl}'  armed,  and 
only  half  drilled,  the}'  possessed,  nevertheless,  a 
large  reserve  of  enthusiasm  and  self-reliance. 

How  to  make  the  most  of  the  material  at  his  hand 
was  the  problem  presented  to  Napoleon.  To  make 
the  most  of  the  enthusiasm,  and  yet  to  guard  against 
the  lack  of  cohesion  and  of  discipline,  led  to  the 
ado{)tion  of  the  distinctive  feature  of  his  system. 
He  discarded  the  line  formations,  degraded  the 
musket,  and  threw  his  men  into  masses — columns 
of  attack — depending  upon  the  bayonet  and  tlie 
shock  of  charging  columns.  Not  only  this,  he  used 
the  three  arms  systematically, — artillery  to  shake 
the  nerves  of  his  enemy,  infantry  in  masses  to 
break  his  line,  and  cavalry  to  complete  his  demor- 
alization. 

In  his  order  of  battle,  the  infantry  was  in  column ; 
the  artillery  of  the  line  in  front  of  the  infantry, 
or  opposite  the  intervals  between  battalions;  the 
cavalry  behind  the  wings,  and  the  reserve  in  rear  of 
the  center.  His  reserve  artillery,  which  played  an 
important  part,  was  massed  opposite  the  point 
selected  for  attack.  His  battle  tactics  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows:  The  attack  opened  with  the 
advance  of  "  clouds  of  skirmishers  "  and  the  fire  of 
the  divisional  artillery  along  the  whole  line.     Be- 


42  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

hind  the  cIoikI  of  smoke  lie  massed  his  charo;ino: 
columns,  and  his  reserve  artillery,  with  which  he 
opened  a  furious  cannonnade  upon  the  selected 
point — usually  the  center.  When  the  artillery  had 
done  its  work,  firing  ceased,  and  out  of  the  screen 
of  smoke  emerged  his  "column  of  attack."  When 
the  line  was  broken,  a  general  advance  followed, 
every  sabre  being  sent  forward  to  scatter  and  de- 
moralize the  enemy. 

Napoleon's  tactics  were  aggressive,  even  in  defen- 
sive campaigns.  There  is  no  better  example  in  liis- 
tory  of  offensive  tactics  in  a  defensive  campaign  than 
his  defense  of  Paris  after  the  Leipsic  disaster,  in 
1814. 

He  habitually  aimed  to  break  the  center  of  his  ad- 
versary's line,  massed  his  columns  there,  leaving 
only  a  containing  force  on  the  wings. 

Anotiier  feature  was  that  he  recognized  the  men- 
tal as  well  as  the  physical  struggle  going  on  on  every 
battle  field,  and  he  always  aimed  to  inspire  fear  and 
terror  among  his  adversaries.  To  this  end  nothing- 
was  omitted  ;  and  as  a  part  of  the  general  scheme, 
we  note  the  half  concealed,  half  exposed  formations 
and  manoeuvres  that  preceded  the  opening  of  the 
battle. 

Under  his  system,  abnormal  extension  gave  place 
to  concentration ;  line  formations  and  musketry  fire, 
to  columns  of  attack  ;  a  large  increase  in  the  strength 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  43- 

of  the  artillery  and  its  concentration  into  heavy 
masses,  and  also  the  employment  of  cavalry  as  a 
separate  corps  and  in  large  bodies. 

As  illustrating  Napoleon's  way  of  fighting  bat- 
teries, Ausferlitz  is  a  good  example.  At  the  open- 
ing of  the  campaign  (1805)  Napoleon  had  set  out 
from  the  camp  at  Boulogne  with  an  army  of  150,000, 
to  make  head  against  two  armies,  each  of  80,000 — 
one  of  Austrians,  the  other  of  Anstrians  and  Rus- 
sians. By  his  superb  strategy  he  captured  the  first 
army  at  Ulm  without  a  battle;  occupied  Vienna,, 
and  tiien  pushed  on  after  the  second  army, which  had 
fallen  back  toward  the  Russian  frontier.  Deceiving 
the  Russian  commander  as  to  his  true  situation  and 
intentions,  he  invited  an  attack  from  his  antagonist 
against  his  own  flank  ;  left  on  that  flank  barely  a 
containing  force;  massed  a  larger  part  of  his  army 
opposite  his  center;  attacked  while  the  turning 
movement  was  in  progress ;  divided  the  allied 
armies,  virtually  destroyed  one-half,  and  drove  the 
other  from  the  field,  with  an  aggregate  loss  to  the 
allies  of  30,000  men,  besides  artillery  and  stores. 

At  Waterloo  we  see  him  hammering  away  at  the 
center  of  Wellington's  line,  even  to  the  last  charge 
of  the  Old  Guard,  when  it  v/ould  seem,  with  our  later 
knowledge  of  the  situation,  that  had  the  earlier  at- 
tacks been  directed  against  the  English  left  flank,  he 
would  have  interposed  between  them  and  their  ex- 


44  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

pected  reinforcements,  and  it  migld  have  won  him 
victory. 

At  Wagram,  however,  he  adopted  the  turning 
movement,  aiming  his  bh)W  at  the  flank  of  the  ex- 
tended Austrian  Une ;  and  to  insure  success  and 
prevent  interference  with  his  turning  column,  he 
sacrificed  Macdonald's  corps,  witli  a  liundred  guns, 
in  a  furious  assault  on  the  center. 

Like  its  predecessor,  Napoleon's  system,  or  battle 
tactics,  was  generally  copied  b}'  the  continental 
powers,  and  columns  of  attack  became  the  favorite 
formation. 

History  repeats  itself.  The  genius  of  Frederick, 
finding  expression  through  a  certain  form  of  mili- 
tary tactics,  triumphed  over  the  old  order  of  things. 
This,  in  turn,  was  overthrown  by  that  of  the  Gorsi- 
can,  who,  adopting  a  system  born  of  his  genius, 
raised  himself  to  the  dictatorship  of  Europe. 

Both  succeeded  because  each  in  turn  ada])ted 
itself  to  existing  conditions,  and  both  failed  when 
adhered  to  after  the  conditions  which  gave  them 
life  ceased  to  exist.  The  system  of  Frederick  was 
annihilated  at  Jena.  Fifty  years  later  tiiat  of 
Napoleon  led  to  disaster  to  tlie  Russians  at  the 
Alma,  and  was  finalh'  wiped  out  in  the  blood  of 
the  French  lm]>erial  Guard,  at  Solfeiino. 


CHAPTER  YI. 

MODERN  TACTICS. 

SINCE  the  tactical  formations  of  armies  have  kept 
pace  with  the  development  of  arms,  a  word  with 
regard  to  the  evolution  of  the  breech-loader  maybe 
in  order. 

Portable  fire-arms  were  first  used  in  battle  about 
the  end  of  the  14th  century.  The  first  guns  used 
had  a  vent  on  the  top,  were  carried  by  one  soldier 
and  touched  off"  by  a  companion.  The  next  step 
was  the  placing  of  the  vent  at  the  side,  with  a  pan 
to  hold  the  priming. 

The  niatcljlock  (1517)  was  the  first  serviceable 
weapon.  A  curved  arm.  })i voted  on  the  side,  car- 
ried a  lighted  slow-match  for  igniting  the  priming. 

The  wheelock  ignited  the  charge  by  means  of  a 
toothed  wheel  impinging  upon  a  composition  of 
iron  and  antimony.  It  was  an  expensive  weapon 
and  its  use  was  confined  to  pistols  and  arms  used 
by  mounted  troops. 

The  first  matchlocks  weighed  from  15  to  50  lbs., 
were  from   4  to  8  feet  in  length,  and  had   a  calibre 

(45) 


46  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

of  from  one-half  to  one  inch.  The  Hpanisli  reduced 
its  length  and  its  weight  to  15  pounds,  and  gave  to 
it  the  name  of  musket  (1525). 

The  flintlock  was  invented  in  1(330;  granulated 
powder  having  been  introduced  a  little  before.  The 
introduction  of  iron  ramrods  and  cartridges  which 
followed,  made  the  musket  really  an  efficient  weapon. 

The  English  flintlock — "  Brown  Bess  '" — which 
figured  in  the  early  Indian  wars,  the  Revolution,  the 
Napoleonic  wars  and  down  to  1830.  weighed  IH 
pounds  ;  3  feet  6  inches  in  length  ;  calibre  .75  of  an 
inch  ;  bullets  18  to  the  pound.  The  French  musket 
weighed  two  pounds  less. 

The  percussion  cap  was  invented  in  1817,  by  one 
Shaw,  of  Bordentown,  New  Jersey,  but  did  not  come 
into  general  use  until  1840. 

Rifled  fire-arms  were  in  use  in  the  18th  century, 
but  the  difficulty  and  slowness  of  loading  kept  them 
out  of  the  military  service  until  about  1850-60.  In 
tlie  Crimean  war  both  English  and  French  troops 
were  partially  armed  with  rifles. 

Breech-loaders  (needle-gun)  first  appeared  in  ac- 
tion in  Europe  in  1850,  in  the  war  between  Prussia 
and  Denmark,  and  the  result  was  such  that  Prussia 
at  once  set  to  work  to  change  her  tactics  to  corres- 
pond with  the  new  order  of  tilings.  In  the  twenty 
years  following  1850,  she  devoted  her  energies  to 
this  task,  so  that  in  the  war  with  France  she  entered 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  47 

upon  the  campaign  with  modern  arms  and  modern 
tactics.  In  tliis  contest  it  was  needle-gun  against 
Chassepot,  and  the  Chassepot  was  the  better  weapon  ; 
l)ut  the  needle-gun  with  needle-gun  tactics  was  more 
than  a  match  ior  the  Chassepot  with  the  tactics  of 
the  muzzle-loader. 

The  breech-loader  is  now  rapidly  giving  place  to 
the  repeater,  or  magazine  gun.  This  is  an  arm  pro- 
vided with  a  reserve  of  from  five  to  eight  cartridges 
carried  in  a  magazine  and  automatically  fed  into  the 
barrel  of  the  rifle.  There  are  several  methods  of 
attaching  this  magazine  to  the  rifle:  but  two,  how- 
ever, are  in  general  use :  (1)  a  steel  box  just  in  front 
of  the  trigger-guard,  either  fixed  or  detachable,  and 
(2)  a  tube  under  the  barrel.  In  all  of  these  systems 
but  one,  the  arm  can  be  used  as  a  single-loader,  re- 
serving the  magazine  for  emergencies. 

Ihe  magazine  arm  has  already  been  adopted  not 
only  by  all  the  principal  powers  of  Europe,  but 
China,  Japan,  and  some  of  the  South  American 
Republics  are  preparing  to  follow  suit. 

With  regard  to  the  breech-mechanism,  the  bolt 
system  is  almost  universal.  In  it  the  opening  and 
closing  of  the  breech  is  effected  by  a  bolt  moving  in 
a  direct  horizontal  line  with  the  bore,  carrying  a 
firing-pin,  with  the  necessary  spring  mechanism  for 
discharging  the  piece. 

Between  1884  and   1887,  German v  and  Austria 


48  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

were  converting  their  single-loading  into  magazine 
arms.  Up  to  this  ti.me  a  calibre  of  about  .45  inches 
was  considered  the  best,  and  was  universally  adopted. 
Professer  Hebler,  a  German  scientist,  was  one  of  the 
first  to  advocate  a  decided  reduction  in  the  calibre 
of  military  arms  (1886).  His  announcement  that 
with  a  bullet  of  about  8  mm.  diameter,  greater  range, 
accuracy,  and  penetration,  with  less  recoil,  could  be 
obtained  than  with  tho.se  of  any  of  the  existing  cali- 
bres, was  received  with  incredulity.  Investigation 
and  experiment  having  shown,  however,  that  these 
claims  were  fully  substantiated,  a  halt  was  called, 
and  before  the  complete  rearmament  of  the  great 
continental  armies  witli  the  large-bore  magazine 
rifle  had  been  completed,  the  work  and  vast  ex- 
penditure of  another  entire  change  of  arm  had  to  be 
undertaken. 

Tiie  advantages  of  a  lighter  arm  and  a  lighter 
bullet,  provided  they  will  do  the  work  re(juired  of 
them,  are  obvious,  and  in  no  way  more  than  in  the 
largely  increased  number  of  cartridges  that  can  be 
carried  by  the  individual  soldier.  No  doubt  the 
astonishing  results  obtained  with  the  small-bore  rifle 
are  due  quite  as  much  to  the  quality  of  the  powder  as 
to  the  mechanical  improvements  in  the  piece  itself. 

Briefly  slated,  the  sy.stems  of  small  arms  adopted 
by  the  leading  European  countries  are: 

llij  Austria — the  Manlicher,  the  magazine  of  which 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  49* 

is  H  fixed  vertical  box  at  the  rear  end  of  the  barrel. 
A  steel  clip  or  cartridge-holder  containing  a  set  of 
five  cartridges  is  inserted  in  the  magazine  from  the 
top.  When  the  last  cartridge  has  been  fed  into  the 
box,  this  holder  is  automatically  ejected  downwards. 
This  rifle  can  not  be  used  as  a  single-loader  except 
when  the  magazine  is  empty. 

By  Germany — the  Manlicher  type  with  some  modifi- 
cations. The  chief  peculiarity  of  the  new  German 
rifle  is  that  it  has  a  double  barrel,  or  rather  a  pro- 
tective metallic  jacket  outside  the  barrel  proper, 
which  is  intended  to  serve  the  double  purpose  of 
protecting  the  barrel  from  injury  and  the  hands  of 
the  soldier  from  contact  with  it  when  heated  by  rapid 
firing.  Recent  experiments  seem  to  show  that  the 
presence  of  this  jacket  serves  to  greatly  increase  the 
temperature  of  the  barrel  through  the  medium  of 
the  confined  envelope  of  superheated  air. 

By  France — tlie  Lebel,  the  first  of  the  small-calibred 
rifles  adopted.  This  is  the  only  arm  now  in  use  hav- 
ing a  tubular  magazine,  which  is  under  the  barrel 
and  contains  eight  cartridges. 

By  England — the  Lee-Mefford,  wliich  is  the  Ameri- 
can Lee,  somewhat  modified.  The  magazine  is  de- 
tachable, contains  eight  cartridges,  and  is  attached 
just  in  front  of  the  trigger-guard,  the  cartridges  being 
forced  upward  into  the  chamber  by  a  spring. 

By  Belgium — the  Mauser,  which  is  a  .301  calibre 


50  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

arm,  with  a  maoaziiie  for  five  cartrido;es  in  front  of 
the  trigger-guard.  It  differs  from  the  Manlicher  in 
that  the  clip  or  cartridge-li  older  does  not  go  into  the 
magazine,  but  is  liehl  above  it  and  the  cartridges  fed 
in  by  a  pressure  of  the  thuml).  The  magazine  may 
be  kept  full  and  the  piece  used  as  a  single-loader. 
Turkey  and  the  Argentine  Republic  are  said  to  have 
adopted  this  arm. 

By  Italy — the  Vitali-Vctte'iii,2i  40-calibre  magazine 
rifle  for  twelve  cartridges,  is  still  the  arm  of  the 
Italian  infantry,  although  an  8  mm.  rifle  is  likely  to 
be  adopted. 

By  tJieUnited  States — the  Springfield  V)reech-loader, 
model  of  1873,  somewhat  improved,  is  still  the  mili- 
tary weapon,  but  a  Board  now  have  the  c^uestion  of 
a  small-calibre  repeating  arm  under  consideration. 

Among  experimental  arms,  interesting  on  account 
of  their  ingenious  mechanism,  the  Freddi.the  Paul- 
son and  the  Maxim  merit  brief  mention. 

The  Freddi  recoil-rifle  is  a  small-cali])red  arm,  in 
which  the  force  of  recoil  is  made  to  open  the  breech 
and  eject  the  empty  case,  obviating  all  movement  of 
the  breech-block  by  hand.  Rapid  firing  is  obtained 
by  attaching  leather  cartridge  l)oxes  containing 
twelve  cartridges  to  the  side  of  the  barrel.  It  can 
be  loaded  and  fired  without  removing  from  tiie 
shoulder. 

In  the  Paulson  recoil-rifle,  the  gases  following  ex- 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  51 

plosion  enter  an  aperture  in  the  barrel  in  front  of 
the  chamber,  and,  by  acting  upon  a  long,  bent  rod, 
force  it  to  the  rear,  opening  the  breech-block  and 
compressing  a  strong  spiral  spring,  which,  after  the 
cartridge  has  been  inserted  by  hand,  reacts,  when 
released,  to  replace  the  breech-block  and  rod. 

The  3Iaxim  recoil-rifle  is  automatic,  and  con- 
structed upon  the  same  principles  as  the  machine- 
gun  of  the  same  inventor.  In  it  the  recoil  action  of 
the  powder  charge  is  received  directly  on  the  breech- 
block, forcing  it  to  the  rear,  extracting  tlie  empty 
case  and  compressing  a  spiral  spring  ;  at  the  same 
time  a  system  of  levers  operates  a  revolving  drum  to 
supply  a  new  cartridge.  When  the  force  of  recoil  is 
spent,  the  spring  reacts  to  close  the  l)reech  and  force 
the  cartridge  into  the  chamber.  By  continuing  the 
pressure  on  the  trigger,  the  piece  will  continue  to 
fire  until  the  magazine  is  exhausted.  The  magazine 
contains  eight  cartridges.  The  drum  is  loaded  by 
hand.  The  breech-block  can  be  operated  by  hand 
and  the  piece  used  as  a  single-loader. 

In  all  of  these  arms  of  small  calibre,  the  bullet  is 
of  hardened  lead,  compressed  into  a  casing  of  cop- 
per, soft  steel,  nickel,  or  German  silver.  The  object 
of  this  metal  covering  for  the  Irallet  is  to  give  it  a 
hold  in  the  grooves  of  the  rifle,  for  with  a  small 
calibre  the  relative  diameter  of  the  bullet  to  its 
lenerth  is  so  e:reat  that  stabilitv  can  onlv   be  ob- 


52  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

tained  by  an  excessive  twist  of  groove ;  and  lead  of 
itself  is  too  soft  to  give  this  hold.  Smokeless  powder 
is  now  fast  taking  the  place  of  the  compressed  black 
powder-charge,  at  first  used  in  small- calibred  arms. 
On  page  53  the  details  of  some  of  the  princi[)al 
military  rifles  are  given.  So  far  as  known  Russia 
has  not  yet  decided  upon  the  type  of  a  new  military 
rifle. 

THE    PROBLEM    OF   MODERN    TACTICS. 

The  problem  to  be  solved  by  modern  tactics  is 
how  to  get  men  up  to  within  charging  distance  of 
the  enemy — that  is,  within  200,  or  at  most  300 
yards. 

Under  the  old  conditions  of  smooth-ljored  guns, 
where  the  effective  range  of  the  musket  was  200 
yards,  range  of  field  guns  2,000  yards,  and  effective 
at  a  third  of  that  distance,  there  was  little  difficulty 
in  getting  men  up  to  the  assaulting  point. 

The  new  conditions  are :  Range  of  the  rifle  2,000 
yards,  deadly  at  1,000  ;  range  of  artillery  4,000  yards, 
deadly  at  2,000.  In  other  words,  the  "  dangerous 
zone  "  has  increased  from  200  up  to  2,000  yards, 
while  accuracy  and  rapidity  of  fire  have  increased 
in  the  same  ratio.  How  to  get  men  over  tliis  1,S00 
yards  of  ground  is  a  problem  to  be  solved. 

The  ( Jermans  have  offered  their  "  Company  Col- 
umn "  as  one  solution.      It  is    not  a  system,  but 


NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 


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54  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

simply  the  means  to  that  end — the  end  a  skirmish 
line — a  skirmish  line  not  to  skirmish  with,  but  to 
jight  with.  Briefly  stated,  the  Company  Column  is 
thus  put  into  action  :  A  battalion  coming  to  the 
"  dangerous  zone  "  is  at  once  broken  into  company 
columns.  A  German  com})any,  at  full  war  strength, 
numbers  250  men,  formed  in  two  ranks  of  three 
platoons.  These  are  divided  and  subdivided  until 
you  get  a  squad  of  eight  or  twelve  men.  Plate  IV 
shows  the  manner  of  forming  the  Company  Col- 
umn, and  also  of  deploying  it.  Upon  an  order  to 
deploy,  the  leading  platoon, — or  a  designated  one, 
if  the  company  is  in  line, — moves  to  the  front,  the 
center  marching  straight  out;  the  others  draw  off 
to  the  right  and  left,  the  rear-rank  men  coming  up 
on  the  right  of  their  file-leaders,  and  all  take  an 
interval  of  from  one  to  two  paces.  The  remainder 
of  the  company  acts  as  a  support  to  the  skirmish 
line.  Its  distance  is  not  fixed  ;  at  first  deployment 
is  about  150  paces.  To  reinforce  the  skirmish 
line,  a  second  or  both  j)latoons  are  sent  forward, 
forming  on  the  flanks  or  in  the  gaps  and  intervals. 
A  part  of  the  advanced  platoon  can  be  halted  mid- 
way, and  serve  as  a  first  support  to  the  skirmishers. 
In  the  end,  the  whole  company — the  whole  of  the 
first  lino — will  find  itself  u[)on  the  firing  line,  and 
will  have  been  rej)laced  iVom  a  battalion  in  second 
line.     The  men  gain  ground  to  the  front  bv  fits  and 


GERMAN    COMPANY   COLUMN. 


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56  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

starts,  either  in  squads,  or  by  twos  or  threes,  or 
singly.  In  the  meantime  they  put  forth  every  effort 
to  keep  down  the  fire  of  the  defense,  until  finally, 
when  enough  men  have  reached  to  within  charging 
distance  to  make  success  probable,  a  rush  is  made 
and  the  line  carried,  or  the  attacking  party  driven 
back  upon  its  support. 

The  French  Company  Column  is  deployed  in 
much  the  same  way,  and  is  governed  by  the  same 
general  rules  as  to  supports  and  the  working  of  its 
way  up  to  the  200  yard  limit.  French  tactics  pre- 
scribe that  when  a  battalion  reaches  a  point  2,000 
yards  from  the  enemy's  artillery  the  "  order  of  com- 
bat "  shall  be  taken  ;  that  is,  the  battalion  is  broken 
into  compan}''  columns,  which  is  a  column  of  a  sec- 
tion, or  half  platoon  front.  The  squad  is  always  the 
unit  in  the  skirmish  line,  and  is  commanded  by  a 
corporal. 

Under  the  modern  conditions  of  warfare,  the  rule 
governing  any  system  of  tactics  is  that,  except  un- 
der the  most  favorable  circumstances  as  tD  ground 
and  cover,  men  must,  when  they  reach  the  "  dan- 
gerous zone,"  be  sent  forward  in  small  bodies,  and 
beyond  the  800  or  ],000  yard  limit,  singly,  by  ones 
or  twos,  or  l)y  squads.  In  other  words,  the  skir- 
misher is  the  man  who  must  win  Ijattles. 

But  there  is  another  question  that  confronts  the 
military  commander  under  the  modern  conditions 
of  wai'fare:  a  (|Ucstion  that  may  be  said  to  be  the 


NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  57 

corollary  of  the  main  problem.  This  is  how  to 
supply  ammunition  to  tlie  fighting  Inie  during  a 
battle.  Formerly,  with  muzzle-loading  guns,  the 
iorty  rounds  wliicli  a  soldier  carried  upon  his  })er- 
son,  eked  out,  maybe,  by  what  he  could  gather  from 
the  boxes  of  fallen  comrades,  was  ordinarily  an 
ample  supply.  Now,  with  breech-loaders  and  re- 
peaters, when  the  volume  of  fire  has  increased 
many  fold,  when  instead,  of  forty,  each  soldier 
must  have  at  least  a  hundred  or  more  rounds  im- 
mediately available,  the  question  of  getting  ammu- 
nition over  the  eight  hundred  or  thousand  yards  of 
bullet-swept  space,  between  the  fighting  line  and  its 
main  support,  is  a  very  serious  one. 

In  European  services  the  allowance  of  ammuni- 
tion for  the  individual  soldier  is  usually  divided 
into  three  lots :  1,  That  which  he  carries  on  his 
person  or  is  carried  by  the  company  or  battalion 
pack  mules  or  carts,  which  should  be  about  half  of 
the  whole  allowance ;  2,  That  which  is  transported 
in  the  division  train,  and  3,  That  which  goes  with 
the  train  of  the  corps,  and  ma}'  be  cMisidered  as  a 
reserve.  Of  the  whole  amount,  probably  one-fourth 
would  be  in  the  corps  ammunition  train,  leaving 
three-fourths  within  reaching  distance  of  the  troops 
engaged. 

Many  plans  have  been  suggested  for  getting  up 
ammunition  from  the  second  line  to  the  figiiting 
line, — by  23ack  mules,  by  men  specially  detailed  for 


58  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

the  purpose,  or,  as  has  recently  been  proposed,  by 
means  of  a  cart,  provided  with  a  bullet-proof  shield 
of  steel,  which  is  to  be  pushed  by  two  strong  men. 
The  company  or  battalion  ammunition  carts  or 
wagons  approach  as  near  as  possible  to  the  line  of 
battle.  From  this  point  the  ammunition  must  be 
carried  forward  either  by  pack  animals  or  by  men — 
two  or  three  to  a  company,  under  a  non-commis- 
sioned officer — who  are  provided  with  bags  or  wal- 
lets, specially  designed  for  the  purpose,  each  weigh- 
ing, when  filled,  about  forty  pounds.  In  the  absence 
of  pack  animals,  horses  may  be  taken  from  the 
wagons  and  used  to  pack  the  ammunition  up  to  the 
supports  of  the  firing  line,  but  beyond  this  point  it 
must  be  carried  forward  by  men. 

The  English  have  proposed  an  ajnmunition  cart 
for  connecting  tlie  wagons  with  tJje  fighting  line, 
capable  of  transporting  as  many  as  20,000  rounds, 
depending  on  the  nature  of  the  ground.  In  shape 
it  is  like  the  bow  of  a  boat,  turned  upside  down,  and 
mounted  on  wheels.  The  mnterial  is  of  steel,  three- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  it  will  turn  bullets  anywliere  beyond  five  hun- 
dred yards  range.  The  cart  is  propelled  by  two 
men  walking  behind  it,  who  are,  of  course,  covered. 
From  the  supports  it  must  be  carried  forward  by 
men. 

The  amount  of  ammunition  to  be  carried  into  the 
field,  in  dilfercnt  European  armies,  does  not  seem  to 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 


5& 


have  been  definitely  fixed.  The  whole  question  of 
amnumition  supply — the  number  of  rounds  to  be 
provided,  as  well  as  the  means  of  getting  it  up  to  the 
fighting  line — is  in  a  transition  state.  With  the 
adoption  of  the  small  calibre  rifle  the  number  of 
rounds  carried  by  the  soldier  has  been  largely  in- 
creased. What  the  increase  will  be  for  the  division 
and  corps  trains  is  not  yet  known. 

The  following  table,  which  refers  to  the  supply 
for  large  calibered  arms,  is  given  to  show  how  the 
ammunition  for  European  armies  is  distributed. 
Under  the  heading  "  By  the  Soldiers,"  is  also  given 
the  number  of  rounds  of  the  reduced  calibre  so  far 
as  is  known  : 

AMMUNITION    SUPPLY. 


0* 

u 
c 
sS 

c 

S 

M 

O 

.2 

to 

3 
< 

Russia. 
England. 

By  the  soldier 

78 

18 

46 
33 

100 
(150) 

36 

30 

29 

100 

88 

84   ,           70 
MleiV 

By  pack   mules,  carts, 
regimental  or  battal- 
ion   wagons,  and   at 
once    available 

35 

48 
32 

-    83 
1 
J 

\ 
{    48             30 

52             40 
13             30 

By  division  train,  and 
avail'able      in     pro- 
longed action 

By  corps  trains 

Total  supply 

175 

197 

215 

171 

197    '        170 

*  Small  calibre. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

STRATEGY. 

STRATEGY  is  the  planning  of  a  campaign  and 
the  determining  of  the  character,  direction,  and 
the  object  to  be  attained  by  military  operations,  and 
embraces  all  operations  prior  to  actual  tactical  col- 
lision. "A  strategist  moves  the  corps,  divisions  and 
brigades  of  his  armv  as  a  chess-i)layer  moves  his 
pieces,  namely,  to  deceive  his  adversary  and  conceal 
his  own  ])urposes  until  within  practicable  limits  of 
its  sure  accomplishment.  He  never  shows  his  hand, 
even  to  his  friends.  Strategy  is  the  mutual  strug- 
gle between  the  leaders  of  hostile  armies.  It  is  a 
kind  of  lying  by  means  of  object-lessons  ;  a  thimble- 
rigger's  game,  in  which  the  dupe  is  never  so  sure  to 
be  wrong  as  when  he  is  sure  he  is  right." 

The  methods  employed  in  organizing  armies,  and 
the  tactics  by  which  their  movements  are  regulated, 
have  undergone  many  clianges  since  men  were  first 
assembled  in  organized  bodies  for  warlike  pur])oses; 
but  the  princii)les  of  stracegy  have  undergone  no 
such  change,  since  they  are  independen.t  both  of 
the  nature  of  the  arms  and  the  organization  of  the 
troops. 

(60) 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  61 

Strategy  is  a  much  more  difficult  science  than 
tactics.  Every  war  develops  good  tacticians,  but 
the  masters  of  strategy  are  rare  indeed. 

All  strategical  oj)erations  may  be  said  to  have  for 
their  object  one  of  three  things :  First,  To  menace 
or  assail  an  enemy's  communications  with  his  base. 

Second,  To  destroy  the  coherence  and  connected 
action  of  his  army  by  cutting  communications  be- 
tween parts  of  his  front. 

Third,  To  effect  superior  concentrations  on  par- 
ticular points. 

The  operations  of  strategy  must  not  be  confounded 
with  tactical  operations  of  the  same  nature.  To  out- 
flank an  enemy  on  the  field  of  battle ;  to  break  his 
line,  or  to  overwhelm  it  at  a  single  point,  would 
come  under  the  head  of  Grand  Tactics.  Battles  be- 
long to  the  domain  of  Grand  Tactics.  They  are 
simply  incidents  to  a  campaign,  which  may  be  won 
by  strategy  without  firing  a  hostile  shot. 

The  preliminaries  to  a  campaign,  which  de- 
termine its  character,  whether  offensive  or  defensive, 
its  direction  and  object,  and  the  means  to  be  used 
for  carrying  it  on,  are  usually  decided  upon  by  the 
statesman  and  not  by  the  soldier.  From  a  military 
point  of  view  this  is  unfortunate.  The  be.st  results 
may  be  expected  where  the  military  commander  is 
himself  the  chief  of  the  state.  It  is  .safe  to  say  that 
neither  Caesar,  Frederick  nor  Napoleon  could  have 


-62  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

accomplished  what  tliey  did  liad  they  been  liam- 
pered  by  Parliaments  or  Legislative  Chambers.  War 
is  despotic  ;  an  army  is  a  despotism  ;  and  a  monarch 
who  is  himself  a  soldier,  and  commands  his  own 
troops,  has  more  tlian  double  cliances  of  success. 

In  planning  a  campaign,  the  first  thing  to  be  de- 
termined is  whether  it  sliall  be  offensive  or  defensive. 
The  reasons  that  may  determine  this  point  are  not 
necessarily  all  military  :  they  may  be  political  or 
geographical : — Political  and  aggressive,  if  the  war 
were  one  for  the  acquisition  of  territory  or  to  re- 
•establish  control  over  a  revolted  province;  geo- 
graphical and  offensive,  if  an  enem3''s  frontier  were 
open  and  poorly  guarded  by  natural  obstacles  and 
the  lines  of  advance  were  direct.  The  military 
reasons  for  taking  the  offensive  would  be,  if  you 
were  ready  and  your  enemy  were  not ;  if  your  army 
was  numerically  superior  and  your  lines  of  advance 
and  bases  were  reasonably  secure. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  army  would  take  the  de- 
fensive for  political  reasons  if  it  were  a  question  of 
maintaining  possession  of  disputed  territory  ;  for 
military  reasons,  if  it  were  inferior  in  numbers,  or 
the  lines  of  his  approach  long  and  easily  assailed. 
The  geographical  reasons  would  be  a  frontier  witli 
strong  natural  obstacles,  as  a  range  of  mountains  or 
a  deep  river. 

In  the  war  of  the  Rebellion  there  were  military, 


NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  63 

political  and  geographical  reasons  why  the  North 
should  take  the  ott'eusive.  and  reasons  equally  strong 
why  the  Confederates  should  choose  defensive  cam- 
paigns. 

The  advantages  of  the  offensive  in  a  campaign  are 
that  the  commander  of  the  invading  army  knows 
exactly  what  he  wants  to  do ;  his  object  is  plainly  be- 
fore him.  and  all  the  means  for  the  accomplishment 
of  his  purpose  have  been  carefully  thought  out, 
together  with  the  methods  for  foiling  the  probable 
counter-movements  of  the  enemy.  Another  great 
advantage  is  the  power  of  concentration,  keeping  all 
of  one"s  forces  togetiier  and  striking  a  decisive  Itlow 
at  the  outset  of  the  campaign. 

On  the  other  h<xnd,  the  commander  acting  on  the 
<iefensive  is  in  ignorance  as  to  where  the  blow  will 
fall,  and  must  consequently  scatter  his  forces  to 
watch  all  the  probable  avenues  of  approach  :  he  is 
obliged  to  follow  the  lead  of  his  adversary  and  parry 
his  blows,  instead  of  assailing  him.  He  has.  how- 
ever, the  great  advantage  of  operating  on  interior 
lines ;  of  being  able  to  concentrate  quickly  upon  a 
threatened  point :  of  being  among  friends,  and.  if 
beaten,  can  fall  back  upon  his  own  depots  and  sup- 
plies. 

The  object  of  a  campaign,  next  to  beating  an 
enemy's  army  in  the  field,  will  naturally  be  the  capi- 
tal of  his  countrv,  since  nothius;  is  so  disheartening 


64  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

and  Imiiiiliating  to  a  people  as  the  capture  of  their 
seat  of  government. 

The  line  of  operations  will  be  determined  by  the 
character  of  the  troops  to  be  employed,  the  nature 
of  the  frontier,  and  the  presence  or  absence  of  rail- 
roads, rivers,  and  roads  for  supplying  the  invading 
army. 

The  character  of  the  troops  to  be  employed  will 
influence  the  selection,  in  that  if  the  invader  has  an 
efficient  cavalry  force  he  will  seek  an  open  country 
where  it  can  be  manoeuvred  ;  if  strong  in  artillery, 
good  roads  are  necessary  ;  while  if  the  main  depend- 
ence is  upon  his  infantr}^  a  broken  country  might 
well  be  selected. 

Strategical  Operations  of  the  1st  Order:  To 
menace  or  assail  an  enemy's  communications  with 
his  Vjase. 

In  tlie  Atlanta  campaign,  186-1,  the  operations 
were  of  this  order.  General  Sherman,  with  an  army 
of  a  hundred  thousand  men,  opened  the  campaign 
early  in  May.  His  base  of  supplies  was  Nashville, 
136  miles  in  his  rear ;  his  starting  point,  Chattanooga. 
His  objective  was  the  Confederate  army  under  .John- 
son, numbering  a  little  more  than  half  his  own  force. 
The  Confederates  were  in  strong  position  in  front  of 
Dalton,  with  their  line  of  retreat  along  the  railroad 
running  to  Athmta,  tlirough  a  mountainous  countr}'- 
which  alfordcMl  many  naturally  strong  positions   for 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 


65 


66  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

defense.  General  Sherman,  with  his  greatly  superior 
numbers,  could  leave  a  force  to  guard  his  own, 
while  moving  against  the  Confederate  line  of  supply. 
B}'  threatening  their  communications,  and  nuich 
severe  fighting,  he  compelled  the  successive  evacua- 
tion of  Dalton,  Resaca,  Kingston,  Kenesaw  Moun- 
tain, the  line  of  the  Chattahoochee  and  finally 
Atlanta.     (Plate  V.) 

In  the  Marengo  campaign,  1800,  Napoleon,  by 
deceiving  the  Austrian  commander  as  to  his  line  of 
advance,  succeeded  in  throwing  his  army  squarely 
across  the  enemy's  line  of  communication.  He  was 
numerically  inferior  to  liis  antagonist,  and  the  move- 
ment was  extremely  hazardous,  and  nothing  but  the 
best  generalsljip  saved  him  from  destruction. 

This  movement  is  always  attended  with  great  risk, 
since  the  army  undertaking  it  has  to  expose  its  own 
connnunication.s.  Superiority  in  numbers  or  favor- 
able to})ogr;iphic  features  alone  warrant  it. 

Of  the  2d  Order:  To  divide  an  enemy's  front. 

General  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea  is  an  example 
on  a  grand  scale  of  the  second  order  of  strategical 
operations.  Turning  northward  after  reaching  the 
coast,  he  compelled  the  evacuation  of  Charleston 
and  brought  to  the  assistance  of  Grant  in  Virginia 
his  army  of  60,000  men. 

Napoleon's  method  of  .solving  this  j)rol)lem  was  as 
follows:  Dividing  his  army  into  three  grand  divisions 
— right,  left  and   center — he  assembled   it  opposite 


NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 


67 


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68  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

the  point  to  be  assailed.  Breaking  through,  he 
joined  his  center  to  one  of  his  wings  and  assailed 
one-half  of  the  divided  enemy;  withdrawing  his 
center,  he  joined  it  to  the  other  wing  and  fell  upon 
the  other  half. 

The  Waterloo  campaign,  1815,  is  another  ex- 
ample. Napoleon,  Avith  an  army  of  125,000,  moved 
against  more  than  200,000  Prussians  and  English - 
Belgians,  extended  on  a  line  of  a  hundred  miles. 
His  object  was  to  separate  the  Prussians  from  their 
English  allies  and  then  beat  them  in  detail.  He 
struck  their  line  near  its  center  at  Ligny,  completely 
severing  the  lateral  communications  ;  attacked  and 
finally  defeated  the  Prussians  with  his  right  wing 
and  center ;  sending  Grouchy  with  the  right  to  follow 
the  retreating  Prussians,  he  joined  Ney  with  his 
center  at  Quatre-Bras  to  destroy  Wellington.  The 
first  step  was  a  success,  but  the  campaign  was  a  fail- 
ure. The  reasons  therefor  are  not  far  to  seek,  and 
may  be  summarized  as  follows :  (1)  In  making  his 
first  attack  witli  inadequate  numbers;  (2)  In  sup- 
posing the  Prussian  army  routed  when  it  was  not 
badly  beaten ;  (3)  His  ignorance  of  the  direction  of 
their  retreat  and  of  the  existence  of  a  practical  road 
across  the  river  Dyle,  at  Wavre,  by  which  they  could 
join  AVellington.     (Plate  VI.) 

Of  the  3d  Order:  To  effect  superior  concentra- 
tions on  particuhir  points. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  69 

The  campaign  of  1814,  in  Champagne,  is  an  ex- 
ample. After  the  disaster  at  Leipsic,  Napoleon, 
retreating  before  the  victorious  allies,  prepared  to 
dispute  their  advance  on  Paris,  with  an  army  of  less 
than  100,000  men,  opposed  to  more  than  twice  that 
number.  Fortunately,  for  him,  the  allied  army  was 
divided,  one  column  coming  from  the  east,  another 
from  the  northeast,  and  a  third  from  the  north.  His 
first  contact  was  with  the  southern  column,  in  which 
he  was  worsted.  Taking  his  entire  force,  except  two 
divisions,  he  fell  upon  the  center  column  and  routed 
it  completel3^  Returning  to  the  southern  column, 
he  attacked  and  drove  it  back  toward  the  frontier. 
In  the  meantime  the  third  column  had  joined  the 
second.  Again  leaving  a  small  force  to  watch  the 
southern  column,  he  moved  with  his  entire  army 
against  the  two  combined  columns  of  the  allies.  He 
gained  decided  advantages  at  first,  but  was  finally 
beaten  and  pushed  aside,  and  the  allies  moved  at 
once  on  Paris.  The  campaign,  which  opened  on  the 
25th  of  January,  was  closed  by  his  abdication  on 
6th  of  April. 

In  strateg}^  the  campaign  was  good,  the  fighting- 
superb,  but  it  failed  because  the  French  were  simply 
overborne  by  sheer  force  of  numbers. 


CHAPTER  YIII. 

MILITARY  OBSTACLES. 

A  MILITARY  obstacle  is  any  surmountable  im- 
pediment to  military  operations  an  enemy's 
country  may  present.  It  may  be  either  natural,  as 
a  mountain  range,  a  river,  or  a  swamp  ;  or  artificial^ 
as  a  fortress. 

The  presence  of  obstacles  influences  both  the  direc- 
tion of  operations  and  the  character  of  the  troops  to 
be  employed  in  a  campaign. 

An  impassable  mountain  is  not  a  military  obstacle, 
properly  speaking,  since  strategy  is  wholly  deljarred 
by  the  conditions. 

Rivers  and  mountains,  passable  only  at  certain 
points,  are  identical  in  their  influence  on  military 
operations,  since  both  Ijring  together  at  certain 
poi-nts  the  roads  and  highways  of  commerce  and 
civilization. 

A  river  is  a  less  complete  obstacle  than  a  moun- 
tain range.  It  is  harder  to  defend  ;  the  crossings 
are  usually  more  numerous  and  the  lateral  com- 
munications along  tlic  l)anks  better. 

A  mountain  diain  which  afl'ords  but  onv  point  of 

(7<»; 


NOTES  ON  :military  science.  71 

passage  can  give  no  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of 
strategy  for  the  assailant,  but  may  for  the  assailed. 
If  passable  at  several  points,  it  affords  a  capital  strat- 
egical problem. 

The  efhciency  of  a  river  as  an  obstacle  depends 
upon  its  width  and  depth ;  upon  the  character  of 
its  banks — whether  higher  upon  one  side  than  the 
other — as  well  as  U[)on  whether  it  is  straight  or 
crooked. 

In  Italy,  north  of  the  Po,  the  obstacles  are  rivers; 
south  of  that  stream,  mountain  ranges.  Spain,  with 
its  network  of  mountains,  has  always  been  a  diffi- 
cult theatre  for  military  operations.  A  glance  at 
the  map  will  show,  in  a  measure,  why  the  French 
army  made  so  little  headway  there  during  the  Napo- 
leonic wars. 

In  the  United  States  the  obstacles  are  both  rivers 
and  mountains.  The  Alleghenies,  extending  from 
Pennsylvania  to  the  northern  boundary  of  Alabama,, 
intersect  the  eastern  half  of  the  continent,  pouring 
streams  both  right  and  left  into  the  Atlantic  and 
the  Mississippi,  played  an  important  ptirt  in  the 
military  operations  of  the  rebellion. 

This  mountain  barrier  separated  completely  the 
armies  of  the  East  and  the  West.  Blotting  it  from 
the  map,  and  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  those 
of  the  Ohio,  the  Tennessee  an<l  tlie  Cumberland, 
could  often  have  co-operated.     But  as  it  was.  Slier- 


72  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    .SCIENCE. 

man  or  Grant  or  Buell,  or  any  of  the  western  com- 
manders, were  completely  isolated  from  the  troojjs 
serving  in  Virginia. 

The  passage  of  any  river,  almost,  may  be  forced 
even  in  the  presence  of  an  enemy.  This  may  be 
done  either  by  a  pontoon  or  a  "  flying-bridge."  A 
pontoon  bridge  is  a  bridge  of  boats,  sufficiently 
stable  to  bear  artillery  and  trains.  The  boats  are 
flat-bottomed,  connected  together  by  stringers,  upon 
which  the  roadwa}^  is  laid.  These  boats  are  trans- 
ported on  wagons  constructed  for  the  purpose,  and 
which  form  a  special  train  under  charge  of  the 
engineers.  A  "  fiying-bridge,"  properly  speaking, 
is  a  boat  or  raft  anchored  up  stream  by  a  cable,  and 
plying  from  shore  to  shore.  Ordinarily  the  term  is 
used  for  any  temporary  contrivance  for  crossing  a 
stream — a  boat,  a  raft,  or  a  bridge  of  boats  built  up 
stream  and  floated  down  to  the  point  of  crossing. 

Histoiy  affords  many  brilliant  examples  of  forcing 
rivers  in  presence  of  an  enemy.  Napoleon's  passage 
of  the  Danube,  just  before  the  battle  of  Essling,  in 
the  presence  of  a  powerful  foe,  and  repeating  it,  six 
weeks  later,  previous  to  Wagram,  are  well-known 
examples. 

At  Chattanooga,  or  in  his  preparations  for  the 
attack  on  INIissionary  Kidge,  it  becanie  necessary  for 
General  Grant  to  effect  a  lodgment  on  the  Confed- 
erate bank  of  the  Tennessee,  which   was  strongly 


NOTES    ON   MILITARY   SCIENCE.  i6 

guarded.  For  this  purpcse  something  over  a  hun- 
dred boats  were  quietly  constructed  in  a  Httle  stream 
that  emptied  into  the  Tennessee  above  the  town,  and 
on  a  dark  night — the  one  preceding  the  day  selected 
for  the  assault — each  boat,  manned  by  thirty  well- 
armed  men,  floated  down  the  stream  to  the  point 
selected  for  cro.?sing,  the  boats  were  run  ashore  on 
the  Confederate  side,  the  men  leaped  out,  and  at 
once  began  to  entrench  themselves.  As  soon  as  the 
men  were  ashore  the  boats  returned  to  the  northern 
bank,  where  General  Sherman's  command  was  wait- 
ins:.  and  before  daylight  two  whole  divisions  were 
over  and  the  lodgment  secured  against  assault. 

A  fortress,  when  in  the  path  of  an  invading  army, 
must  either  be  captured,  turned,  or  masked.  It 
would  be  turned  if  the  army  avoided  it  entirely  by 
taking  a  different  route  ;  masked  if  a  sufficient  force 
were  left  to  watch  it  while  the  main  bod}^  pursued 
its  march.  If  too  strong  for  open  assault  its  capture 
would  involve  regular  siege  operations. 


CHAPTER   IX. 
EXPLOSIVES. 

Explosives  in  general  are  bodies  so  constituted 
that,  by  di^tiirl»iiig  the  chemical  equilibrium  of  their 
ingredients,  usually  by  heat,  they  are  converted  in- 
stantaneously from  a  solid  or  liquid  form  into  gases 
of  high  temperature  and  tension.  Tlie  shorter  the 
time  occupied  by  the  explosion,  the  greater  the  heat 
and  consequent  expansion  of  the  gases. 

An  explosive  body  must  be  so  constituted  that  it 
will,  on  explosion,  form  large  quantities  of  perma- 
nent gas.  Almost  without  exception,  explosives  are 
composed  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  When 
explosion  takes  place,  the  carbon  and  ox\'gen  unite 
to  form  carljonic  acid  gas,  and  nitrogen  is  set  free. 
Carbon  and  oxygen  readily  combine,  and  the  com- 
bination is  aecomi)anied  with  great  evolution  of  heat. 
The  nitrogen  in  the  compound  is  in  combination 
with  oxvgen ;  but  its  attraction  for  the  latter  is 
feeble,  and  it  readily  gives  up  its  oxygen  to  the 
carbon,  taking  itself  the  gaseous  state. 

Explosives  are  divided  into  two  general  classes — 
(1)  meclicuiical  mixtures,  and  (2)  chemical  compounds. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  75 

First  Class :  The  ingredients  are  mechanically 
mixed,  and  can  be  separated  by  mechanical  means,. 
and  explosion  is  by  combustion  of  the  individual 
grains,  progressively.     (Gunpowder.) 

Second  Class:  The  elements  composing  it  are  in 
chemical  combination,  and  can  not  be  separated  ex- 
cept by  chemical  change.  Explosion  is  not  by  com- 
bustion ;  all  parts  decompose  simultaneously,  and 
the  initial  pressure  is  the  maximum  one.  All  the 
high  explosives  are  of  this  class. 

GUNPOWDER. 

Who  discovered  and  who  first  used  it  as  a  projec- 
tile force  has  always  been  a  disputed  point.  The 
honor  is  claimed  both  for  the  Chinese  and  the 
Arabs.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that  the  Chinese 
were  the  first  people  to  use  a  compound  containing 
saltj)eter,  sulphur,  and  charcoal,  but  purely  as  a 
pyrotechnical  preparation.  In  the  intercourse  be- 
tween the  two  countries,  a  knowledge  of  this  mix- 
ture was  carried  to  Arabia,  where  it  was  developed 
into  practical  use  as  a  projectile  force,  and  was  used 
on  the  battle  field  in  China,  by  the  Mongols,  in 
1234  A.  D.,  at  the  siege  of  Tsai-Chew.  Neverthe- 
less there  seems  no  doubt  but  that  the  real  dis- 
coverer of  the  explosive  properties  of  nitre,  sulphur 
and  carbon,  so  far  as  concerns  its  use  in  European 
countries,     was    a  German     monk,     one    Berthold 


76  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

Schwartz,  and  that  its   discovery  was   purely  acci- 
dentaL 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  after  500  years  the  ingre- 
dients of  gunpowder  are  the  same  and  their  propor- 
tions almost  identical  with  the  mixture  used  in  the 
first  fire-arms.  The  improvements  have  been  almost 
entirely  in  the  purification  and  manner  of  manipu- 
lating these  ingredients — es])ecially  as  to  the  form 
and  character  of  the  grains.  From  mealed  powder, 
in  which  form  it  was  first  used,  down  to  the  hard, 
brown  prisms,  weighing  from  an  ounce  to  half  a 
pound,  we  have  a  complete  history  of  the  growth  of 
this  explosive. 

Gunpowder  is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  sulphur, 
nitre  and  charcoal,  u.sually  in  the  following  propor- 
tions, by  weight :  Nitre,  76  ;  sulphur,  10 ;  charcoal,  14. 

Without  going  into  the  details  of  the  manufacture 
of  gunpowder,  it  may  be  said  that  the  operations  of 
its  fabrication  are  seven  in  numl»er:  (1)  pulverizing; 
(2)  incorporating  ;  (3)  compressing  ;  (4)  granulat- 
ing ;  (5)  glazing;  (6)  drying,  and  (7)  dusting. 
Tlie  ingredients  are  first  })ulverized  separately  in 
cast-iron  barrels  ;  then  mixed  in  proper  proportions 
by  weight  and  thoroughly  incorporated  by  means  of 
heavy  cylinders  made  to  roll  around  a  horizontal 
axis  in  a  circular  trough  :  it  is  then  sprinkled  with 
water  and  subjected  to  a  powerful  pressure  until  it 
is  reduced  to  a  solid  cake ;  the  cake  is  broken  into 
fragments   or   grains  by    passing    it    l)etween  iron- 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  77 

toothed  rollers  until  reduced  to  the  [troper  fineness. 
To  render  it  less  liable  to  absorb  moisture  it  is  glazed 
by  revolving  in  a  leather  barrel,  the  grains  polishing 
each  other  by  attrition.  Drying  and  dusting  com- 
plete the  process. 

The  size  of  grain  exercises  an  important  influence 
upon  the  pressure  exerted  by  a  charge  of  fired  gun- 
powder. The  smaller  the  grain,  short  of  mealed 
powder,  the  quicker  the  combustion  and  conse- 
quently the  greater  the  pressure.  The  grain  of  can- 
non powder,  used  in  field  guns,  is  about  .1,  that  of 
mammoth  about  .9  of  an  inch.  Gunpowder  should 
have  a  specific  gravity  of  not  less  than  1.75.  It  ex- 
plodes at  572  degrees  F. 

All  recent  forms  of  powder  for  heavy  guns  have 
special  shapes,  and,  as  with  the  German  cocoa,  or 
slow-burning  powder,  a  special  process  of  manufac- 
ture. These  forms  are  spherical,  si3hero-hexagonal, 
hexagonal  and  prismatic.  The  larger  forms  are  per- 
forated so  as  to  burn  upon  an  increasing  surface. 
Recent  improvements  have  been  in  the  direction  of 
"slow-burning"  powder.  With  this  the  force  on 
tlie  projectile  is  exerted  more  like  a  j^usJi  than  a 

blow.  , 

The  combustion  of  a  grain  of  gunpowder  is  pro- 
gressive. With  ordinary  form  of  grain,  the  greater 
part  of  the  gas  is  evolved  in  the  first  two-tenths  of 
the  time. 

The  chemical   equation  for  the  reaction  of  fired 


78  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

gunpowder  as  usually  given  is  2KN(_)3-f  SC+S^^KgS 
-fXo-'^^'^-^s-  This  equation  is  not  really  correct, 
for  besides  sulphide  there  is  also  i)Otassic  sulpliate, 
carbonate  and  hyposulphite  (solids),  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  marsh  gas,  etc. 

Many  eminent  chemical  experimenters  have 
claimed  that  no  general  chemical  expression  for 
the  products  of  exploded  gunpowder  can  be  given, 
and  that  all  attempts  to  reduce  to  a  formula  the 
chemical  reactions  that  occur  during  gunpowder 
explosion  are  misleading  and  valueless.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  claimed  that  given  pure  ingredi- 
ents of  known  strength,  especialh-  the  charcoal,  a 
reliable  equation  can  be  obtained  which  will  rei)re- 
sent  all  the  products,  both  solid  and  gaseous,  result- 
ing from  burning  a  given  charge  of  gunjiowder. 

Under  any  circumstances,  gunpowder  is  a  waste- 
ful compound.  The  amount  that  is  unconsumed 
or  remains  in  a  solid  state  is  always  large.  The  ex- 
periments of  Bunsen  and  Schischkoff  go  to  show 
that  the  waste  in  gunpowder  is  about  68  per  cent, 
of  its  own  Aveight,  onl}'  about  32  per  cent,  being 
utilized.  That  is  to  say,  that  only  about-  one-third 
of  a  charge  of  gunpowder  appears  after  explosion 
in  the  form  of  permanent  gases. 

THE    HIGH    EXPLOSIVES. 

All  the  high  explosives  are  cJicmiccd  compounds. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  79 

and,  generally  speaking,  owe  their  explosive  force 
to  the  action  of  nitric  acid  upon  cellulose,  wood  fibre, 
glycerine,  etc.  Each  is  formed  by  introducing  into 
a  body  composed  of  oxygen,  carbon  and  hydrogen, 
nitrogen  and  oxygen  in  feeble  combination,  in  place 
of  part  of  the  original  hydrogen.  A  new  substance 
is  obtained,  unstable  from  its  greater  complexity, 
and  also  from  the  peculiar  condition  of  the  added 
atoms.  The  nitrogen  holds  the  oxygen  so  feebly 
that  a  slight  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  brings 
into  action  the  stronger  attractions  of  the  carbon 
and  hydrogen  for  oxygen. 

The  number  of  explosive  mixtures  is  very  large, 
and  the  number  is  being  added  to  constantly.  Of 
those  that  have  been  tested  by  actual  use,  we  have 
gun-cotton,  nitro-glycerine,  the  dynamites,  explosive 
and  blasting  gelatine  and  rackarock. 

Gun-Cotton  was  the  first  invented  (1846),  and  is 
simply  clean  cotton  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  mix- 
ture of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acid.  The  sulphuric 
acid  does  not  enter  into  combination;  it  acts  simph' 
as  a  carrying  agent,  taking  up  the  water,  and  pre- 
venting the  nitric  acid  from  destroying  the  fibre  of 
the  cotton.  It  has  twice  the  projectile,  and  four 
times  the  explosive  force  of  gunpowder.  It  ex- 
plodes at  360  degrees  F. 

Nitro- Glycerine,  or  blasting-oil,  as  it  was  at  first 
called,  is  formed  by  the  action  of  a  mixtui'e  of  nitric 


80  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

and  sulphuric  acid  upon  pure  glycerine  at  a  low 
temperature.  As  in  the  case  of  gun-cotton,  the 
sulphuric  acid  does  not  enter  into  combination.  It 
is  an  oily,  colorless  liquid,  very  slightly  yellow,  of 
sweetish  taste,  and  with  a  specific  gravity  of  1.6.  Its 
firing  point  is  about  365  degrees  F.  It  is  not  af- 
fected by  water  ;  freezes  at  40  degrees  F.,  and  is 
comparatively  safe  when  frozen.  It  has  about  ten 
times  the  explosive  force  of  gunpowder.  In  its 
manufacture  the  reaction  may  be  represented  by 
the  equation — 

Glycerine.       Nitric  Acid.       Nitro-glycerine.      Water. 

C3  H8O3+  3HN03=  CaH^NgO.+SH.O. 

When  exploded,  the  reaction  may  be  expressed 
by  the  equation — 

Nitro-glycerine.  Garb.  Acid.  Water.  Ni'gen.  Oxy. 

2C3H5N303=6C02+5H204.6N4-0. 

Comparing  tins  equation  with  the  one  given  for 
the  reaction  in  the  case  of  ginq^owder,  and  remem- 
bering that  in  this  case  the  decomposition  is  instan- 
taneous, it  can  be  readily  seen  why  the  high  ex- 
plosives act  so  much  more  powerfully  than  does 
gunpowder. 

It  was  found  that  lic|uid  explosives,  like  nitro- 
glycerine, except  in  a  frozen  state,  were  dangerous 
to  store  or  transport,  while  solid  explosives  were  less 
dangerous.     This  led  to  the  invention  of  dynamite, 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  81 

which  is  simply  nitro-glycerine  mixed  with  some 
inert  absorbent,  and  thereby  converted  into  a  soUd 
body. 

The  Dynamites,  of  which  there  is  a  large  variety, 
are  divided  into  two  very  distinct  classes,  namely, 
those  which  contain  a  chemicaWy  iii active  absorbent, 
as  D3'namite  No.  1,  and  those  which  contain  chem- 
ically active  absorbents,  as  Dynamite  Nos.  2  and  3, 
Atlas  Powder,  Lithofracteur,  etc. 

Dynamite  No.  1  consists  of  75  per  cent  of  pure 
nitro-glycerine  and  25  per  cent  of  infusorial  earth , 
or  Kieselguhr.  In  this  case  the  absorbent  exerts  no 
chemical  action  whatever  upon  the  explosion,  and 
remains  behind  as  an  unaltered  residue.  In  appear- 
ance it  is  a  loose,  soft,  readily-moulded  substance  of 
buff  color.     It  freezes  at  40  degrees  F. 

In  the  second  class  of  dynamites,  and  all  the  other 
nitro-glycerine  mixtures,  the  absorbent  is  itself  an 
explosive,  as  the  nitrates  of  potassium  and  sodium, 
resin,  wood  fibre,  etc. 

Under  this  class  comes  the  most  powerful,  and,  it 
is  believed,  the  best  of  all  the  high  explosives — 
blasting  gelatine,  or  gun-dynamite. 

Blasting  Gelatine  is  made  by  dissolving  in  92 
parts  of  nitro-glycerine,  8  parts  of  collodion  gun- 
cotton.  The  mixture  gelatinizes  into  a  solid  state. 
In  appearance  it  is  a  gelatinous,  elastic,  pale  yellow 
substance,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  1.6.  It  can  be 
cut  with  a  knife,  rolled  into  strips  and  formed  into 


82  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIEN'CE. 

any  required  shap(\  It  is  not  affected  ])y  water,  and 
does  not  require  any  ])articular  care  in  its  liandling 
or  transportation.  Explosive  gelatine  differs  from 
blasting  gelatine  by  tbe  presence  of  a  small  amount 
of  campbor — usually  89,  7  and  4  per  cent,  respect- 
ively of  nitro-glycerine,  nitro-cotton  and  campbor. 
Forcite  gelatine  bas  95  per  cent,  of  nitro-gelatine 
and  5  per  cent,  of  unnitrated  cellulose.  Tbe  pres- 
ence of  camplior  in  tbe  compound  renders  it  prac- 
tically insensible  to  sbock.  Under  tbese  conditions 
only  a  powerful  primer  will  explode  it.  Rifle  bullets 
fired  into  it  at  sbort  range  will  not.  It  is  believed  to 
possess  botb  mecbanical  and  cbemical  staljility,  and 
by  mixing  camplior  witb  it,  its  insensibility  may  be 
augmented  at  wdll.  As  sbown  below,  its  exi:)losive 
])Ower  is  greater  tban  tbat  of  any  otber  ex^^losive 
now  in  use. 

The  relative  force  of  tbe  various  bigb  explosives 
is  differently  given  b}"  different  autborities;  tbat  of 
Nobel's  Explosive  Company,  of  Glasgow,  is  as  fol- 
lows, taking  blasting-gelatine  as  100,  and  comparing 
tbem,  weigbt  for  weigiit: 

Blasting  gelatine 100.00 

Niiro-glycerine 9.j.:^(i 

Dynamite  No.  1 75.11 

Lithofracteur <>'■>. ^9 

Gun-coUon   .    .  <;.">. 43 

Dynamite  No.  2 51  23 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  83 

Gen.  Abbott,  in  his  report  on  explosives,  places 
tliem  as  follows,  when  fired  under  water  (Dynamite 
No.  1  being  taken  as  the  standard): 

Dynamite  No.  1 100 

Gun-cotton 87 

Nitro-glvcerine 81 

Rackarock 80 

Explosive  gelatine 117 

Colonel  Bucknill  gives  the  following : 

Dynamite  No.  1 U)0 

Gun-cotton,  dry 100 

Explosive  gelatine 117 

Forcite  gelatine 1.33 

Blasting  gelatine 142 

Gunpowder 25 

Gun-cotton,  dynamite,  and  nearly  all  the  high 
-explosives,  when  ignited  in  small  cpiantities,  burn 
slowly  without  explosion.  If  sufficient  Cjuantity  be 
fired,  explosion  takes  place.  But  to  obtain  the  full 
effect  of  any  of  these  mixtures,  a  detonating  cap 
or  primer  is  necessary ;  in  other  words,  the  force 
exerted  depends  very  much  ui)on  the  character  of 
the  initial  impulse  that  upsets  the  equilibrium  of 
the  atoms.  Fulminating  mercury  has  been  found 
to  be  best  adapted  for  this  purpose. 

Besides  the  ex|)losives  already  mentioned,  a  num- 


84  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

ber  of  others  have  recently  appeared,  which  promise 
to  take  a  permanent  place  in  the  list.  Among  them 
we  have — 

Carbo-Dynamite. — To  obviate  the  objections  to 
ordinary  dynamite — the  separation  of  the  glycerine 
from  the  absorbent,  its  disagreeable  and  dangerous 
fumes,  and  the  character  of  the  gases  given  off  by 
explosion — the  inventor  of  this  explosive  substitutes 
for  the  inert  absorbent,  10  per  cent,  of  cork  carbon, 
which  is  both  an  inflammable  body  and  a  safe  and 
healthy  absorbent.  The  gases  given  off  are  innox- 
ious, and  an  explosive  effect  of  50  to  75  per  cent, 
greater  than  dynamite  is  claimed  for  it. 

Melinite,  the  invention  of  two  captains  of  the 
French  xVrmy,  made  its  appearance  four  years  ago, 
and  was  heralded  as  the  most  powerful  explosive 
known.  It  is  said  to  liave  been  given  its  name  be- 
cause in  color  it  resembles  honey  (miel).  The  in- 
gredients, as  well  as  the  mode  of  manufacture,  have 
been  kept  a  profound  secret.  As  originally  invented 
it  is  believed  to  have  been  composed  largely  of  picric 
acid.  Since  a  number  of  fatal  accidents  attending 
its  use  in  its  early  days,  the  French  claim  to  have 
changed  its  constituents  and  improved  it.  A  late 
writer  gives  its  constituents  presumably  as  picric 
acid,  gun-cotton,  and  gum  arabic.  Upon  its  first 
appearance  its  inventors  claimed  for  it  an  explosive 
power  one  hundred  times  that  of  gunpowder  and 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  85 

ten  times  that  of  nitro-glyceriue.  Recent  experi- 
ments with  it  in  shells  seem  to  indicate  that  it  pos- 
sesses an  explosive  force  about  equal  to  that  of  gun- 
cotton. 

Bellite  consists  of  one  part  of  dinitro-benzine 
and  five  parts  of  ammonium  nitrate  by  weight.  It 
is  said  to  be  very  stable,  and  recent  tests  both  by 
heat  and  shock  have  been  satisfactory.  For  detach- 
ing rock  it  is  claimed  to  possess  greater  efficie'jcy 
than  any  of  the  nitro-gl^^cerine  compounds. 

Emmensite  takes  its  name  from  its  inventor. 
Like  JAoburite  and  rackarock,  it  is  composed  of  two 
ingredients — one  a  new  nitro-derivative  of  certain 
hydrocarbons  of  the  aromatic  series;  the  other  a 
mineral  salt.  The  exact  character  of  the  ingredients 
and  method  of  mixing  are  the  features  of  the  inven- 
tion. It  is  said  that  it  can  be  fused  and  cast  into 
any  desired  form,  and  by  granulating,  a  powder  of 
any  desired  quickness  of  action  obtained.  Taking 
for  granted  all  that  its  friends  claim  for  it,  it  enjoys 
the  distinction  of  being  the  only  high  explosive 
that  can  be  used  in  fire-arms.  They  claim" for  it  an 
explosive  power  considerably  greater  than  nitro-gly- 
cerine  and  double  that  of  dynamite.  From  recent 
experiments  had  at  the  Washington  Navy  Yard, 
and  elsewhere,  this  seems  to  be  one  of  the  most 
promising  of  the  new  explosives. 

Securite — a  German  invention.     Said  to  be  flame- 


86  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

less  when  exploded,  and  of  particular  service  in 
engineering  work  where  fire-damp  exists.  It  is 
composed  of  nitrate  hydrocarbons  mixed  with  an 
oxidizing  agent,  as  chlorate  of  potash,  and  some 
organic  salt,  which  renders  the  mixture  flameless. 

Hellhoffite  is  one  of  the  latest  additions  to  the 
list  of  exjdosives.  It  is  liquid,  and  is  formed  by  a 
combination  of  the  nitro-products  of  tar  oils  with 
nitric  acid.  Its  special  value  is  claimed  to  be  in 
mining — and  an  explosive  force  70  percent,  greater 
than  dynamite  and  30  per  cent,  than  uitro-glycerine. 

It  should  be  stated  that  the  results  claimed  to  have 
been  obtained  from  all  the  later  additions  to  the  list 
of  high  explosives,  are  given  with  reservation.  It 
is  not  known  that  any  of  tliem  have  been  thoroughly 
tested  by  competent,  unprejudiced  parties. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  the  two  classes- 
of  explosives  have  each  a  distinctive  value,  aside 
from  their  use  in  a  purely  military  way.  Gunpowder 
does  its  work  progressively  and  ma}''  be  called  a  dis- 
intergrating  compound.  It  is  a  good  agent  for  rend- 
ing a[»ai't  rock,  but  not  a  good  one  for  breaking  it 
up.  Its  action  is  always  in  the  direction  of  least  re- 
sistance. On  the  other  hand,  the  dynamites  may  be 
called  shattering  compounds  :  their  explosion  is  prac- 
tically instantaneous,  and  the  force  developed  ex- 
erted equally  in  all  directions.  They  are  wholly 
unfitted  for  use  as  a  projectile-force  in  fire-arms. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  87 


SMOKELESS     POWDERS. 

The  latest  experiments  in  the  direction  of  the  im- 
provement of  gunpowder  have  been  made  with  a 
view  of  obtaining  a  powder  that  shall  be  practically 
smokeless.  While  the  value  of  such  a  powder,  for 
small  arms,  upon  the  battle-field  is  obvious,  it  is  with 
rapid-fire  guns  that  its  use  has  become  a  necessity, 
if  the  quality  of  rapidity  of  fire  is  to  be  fully  taken 
advantage  of. 

The  introduction  of  a  powder  of  this  kind  by  the 
French,  with  their  Lebel  rifle,  five  years  ago,  set  half 
the  chemists  of  Europe  at  work  in  this  direction.  So 
far  as  known,  all  the  smokeless  powders  are  either 
nitro-compounds  or  picrates.  None  of  them  are 
wholly  without  smoke,  but  that  given  off  appears 
as  a  thin  haze,  which  does  not  obscure  vision  and 
quickly  disappears.  With  equal  charges  and  cham- 
ber pressures,  much  higher  velocities  are  obtained 
than  with  black  powder.  Whether  any  of  these 
powders  possess  "  keeping  qualities  "  under  different 
conditions  of  temperature  and  climate,  is  yet  to  be 
determined.  The  English  are  now^  engaged  upon 
some  climatic  tests  in  India  and  Canada,  with  prom- 
ising results.  All  the  larger  European  powers  have 
smokeless  powder  in  actual  use  with  small  arms  and 
rapid-fire  guns.  Its  use  in  heavy  ordnance  is  yet 
in  an  experimental  stage. 


88  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

The  French  Vieille  powder  is  supposed  to  be  a 
picrate  powder,  and  in  appearance  resembles  small 
bits  of  yellowish-brown  paper.  The  English  have 
adopted  Cordite,  which  is  composed  of  blasting  gel- 
atine and  nitro-cellulose,  with  a  solvent  added  that 
will  give  it  the  consistency  of  thick  jelly.  While 
soft  it  is  pressed  into  cord-like  shapes,  which  harden 
as  the  solvent  evaporates.  The  Hengst  powder  is 
prepared  from  straw  pulp,  which  is  treated  in  much 
the  same  way  that  cotton  is  in  the  preparation  of 
gun-cotton.  It  is  described  as  smokeless,  flameless, 
i^ractically  non-fouling,  and  that  both  the  report 
and  recoil  are  less  than  with  black  j)Owder. 

Ballistite,  adopted  by  the  Italian  government,  is  a 
mixture  of  aljout  equal  parts  of  nitro-glycerine  and 
nitro-cotton,  with  sometimes  a  moderating  agent,  as 
camphor,  added.  The  gelatinized  material  is  formed 
into  tubes,  granules,  or  other  desired  shapes. 

These  powders  have  been  used  in  guns  up  to  six- 
inch  calibre.  The  impression  that  they  are  noise- 
less is  erroneous. 


CHAPTER  X. 

CANNON. 

F ^IRE-ARMS  are  divided  into  two  general  classes  : 
cannon  and  small  arms. 

The  first  cannon  was  a  mortar,  firing  stone  balls, 
with  a  charge  of  mealed  powder  equal  to  one-half 
the  weight  of  the  projectile. 

The  Bombard  came  next,  built  up  of  wrought- 
iron  staves,  strongly  hooped,  had  a  conical  bore,  and 
was  fastened  to  a  block  of  wood. 

The  Culverin,  of  bronze,  of  great  length,  using 
iron  balls  and  granulated  powder,  was  the  first 
really  serviceable  cannon. 

Shell,  or  bombs,  as  they  were  called,  were  first 
used  in  mortars.  Until  the  invention  of  the  sabot 
(a  block  of  wood  fastened  to  the  rear  of  a  projectile) 
the  artilleryman  of  those  days  saw  no  way  of  using 
these  projectiles  in  guns  for  horizontal  fire  except 
by  making  the  piece  short  enough  so  that  he  could 
place  the  bomb  in  the  bore  with  his  hands,  with 
fuse  in  proper  position.  These  short  pieces  are 
called  howitzers.  The  name  is  still  retained  for  com- 
paratively short  and  light  pieces,  of  large  bore,  in- 
tended only  to  throw  hollow  projectiles. 

(89) 


90  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

The  iuiprovement  in  cannon  kei)t  pace  with  that 
of  small  arnjs.  Rifled  cannon  came  into  use  but 
little  later  than  the  rifle  musket,  but  it  has  taken 
much  longer  for  the  rifle  to  assert  its  superiority 
with  heavy  than  it  did  with  tield  guns  or  small- 
arms. 

The  metals  used  in  the  construction  of  cannon 
are  bronze,  wrought  iron,  steel  and  cast-iron. 

Bronze  is  composed  of  90  jiarts  of  co))per  and  10 
of  tin.  It  has  a  tensile  strength  of  ai)Out  40,000  lbs. 
per  square  inch,  and  wdll  stretch  from  5  to  10  jier 
cent,  before  breaking.  It  lacks  sufficient  har(hiess 
for  rifled  guns,  and  is  expensive. 

Aluminium-bronze  has  recently  been  experi- 
mented with,  and  owing  to  its  lightness  and  strength, 
promises  to  occupy  a  prominent  place  among  the 
gun  metals  of  tlie  future. 

Wrought  Iron  is  pure  iron.  It  has  a  tensile 
strength  of  about  G0,000  lbs.  per  square  inch,  and 
will  stretcii  10  per  cent,  before  rupture.  The  diffi- 
culty of  welding  it  in  large  masses  is  its  chief  defect 
as  a  gun  metal. 

Steel. — By  adding  from  .25  to  1.75  per  cent,  of 
carbon  to  wrought,  or  pure  iron,  it  becomes  harder, 
and  capable  of  taking  a  "  temper."'  The  carbon 
enters  into  the  chemical  structure  of  the  metal ;  it 
becomes  elastic,  stronger,  and  capable  of  resisting 
strains  of  all  kinds  to  a  much  greater  degree  than 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  91 

did  the  wrought  iron  alone.  It  has  a  tensile  strength 
of  from  50  to  150  thousand  pounds  per  square  inch. 
When  thoroughly  worked  by  the  rolls  or  under  the 
hammer,  Bessemer  or  Siemens  steel  should  possess 
a  tenacity  of  70,000  lbs.  per  scjuare  inch,  and  a 
ductility  of  20  to  25  per  cent. 

Cast  Iron. — By  increasing  the  amount  of  carbon 
added  to  wrought  iron  it  reaches  a  degree  of  hard- 
ness when  it  can  not  be  wrought,  and  ]  asses  from 
steel  into  cast  iron.  Iron  with  from  1.75  to  2.5  per 
cent,  of  carbon,  becomes  liard  and  brittle.  "  The  car- 
bon in  this  case  is  in  the  physical  structure  of  the 
metal,  and  takes  from  instead  of  adding  to  its 
strength.  It  will  stretch  only  about  1  per  cent. 
Gun-metal  iron  should  have  a  tensile  strength  of 
from  35  to  40  thousand  pounds  per  scjuare  inch. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    CANNON. 

All  the  earlier  cannon  were  cast,  and  of  iron  or 
bronze.  "  Built-up  "  guns  were  first  constructed  in 
England  about  1850.  This  method  is  now  almost 
universally  employed.  The  principal  systems  of 
gun-construction  are — 

In  England, — the  Woolwich,  Ainnstrong  and  Whit- 
worth.  The  first  the  government,  the  latter  private 
firms.  The  first  two  systems  are  essentially  the 
same: — an  inner  tube  of  steel,  reinforced  formerly 
with  wrought-iron  coils,  but  now  wholh'  with  steel 


92  NOTES   OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

cylinders  or  rings,  shrunk  on  by  heat.  In  the  Whit- 
worth  system  the  material  used  is  wholly  fluid-com- 
pressed steel — the  metal  being  subjected  to  great 
pressure  while  in  a  semi-fluid  state.  The  inner  tube 
is  slightly  conical,  over  which  are  forced  the  outer 
rings  or  jackets  by  hydraulic  pressure — one  over 
the  other. 

In  the  Krupp  (German)  system,  the  guns  are  con- 
structed throughout  of  crucible  steel,  run  into  ingots 
of  suitable  size,  and  then  forged  under  powerful 
steam  hammers.  The  inner  tube  is  made  from  a 
solid  block;  it  is  cylindrical  about  the  base,  and 
conical  towards  the  muzzle;  a  steel  sleeve,  contain- 
ing the  breech-block  aperture,  is  first  placed  upon 
the  tube,  and  over  this  sleeve  are  placed  the  bands 
made  from  solid  disks  of  hammered  cast  steel, 
shrunk  on  by  heat. 

The  accompanying  cut  of  the  Canet,  Kruj)})  and 
Armstrong  guns,  will  show  the  general  method  of 
constructing  built-up  ordnance.  The  number  of 
coils  or  rings  shrunk  over  the  inner  tube  depends, 
of  course,  upon  the  size  of  the  piece.  The  Canet 
system  (French)  of  built-up  all-steel  guns  is  now 
one  of  the  most  promising. 

In  the  United  States  the  sj'stem  now  in  vogue  is 
to  purchase  the  steel  forgings  for  the  inner  tubes, 
jackets,  etc.,  from  private  manufacturers,  in  the 
rough,  and  afterwards  assemble  and  finish  in  Gov- 


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NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  93- 

ernment  shops.  The  forgings  for  our  first  built-up 
guns  were  procured  abroad,  of  Whitworth,  but  now 
rehance  is  placed  wholly  upon  steel  of  American 
production. 

At  the  Washington  Naval  Gun  Factory  there  is  a 
complete  plant  for  the  assembling  of  all-steel  heavy 
guns  of  the  largest  calibres.  Up  to  the  beginning 
of  the  present  year  (1891)  there  have  been  completed 
here,  in  addition  to  guns  of  smaller  calibre,  51  6- 
inch,  11  8-inch,  and  4  10-inch  breech-loading  rifles,. 
while  a  number  of  12-inch  are  well  under  way,  and 
work  on  13-incli  guns  will  soon  be  begun. 

At  the  Army  Gun  Factory  at  West  Troy,  N.  Y., 
work  upon  an  extended  scale  is  about  to  be  begun. 
One  gun  each  of  8,  10  and  12-inch  calibre  has 
already  been  assembled  here.  A  second  8-inch 
army  gun  has  been  assembled  at  the  West  Point 
Foundry,  while  at  this  place  and  at  the  South 
Boston  Iron  Works  the  work  of  assembling  6  and 
8-inch  guns  for  the  Navy  has  been  going  on  for 
several  years.  Seventy-five  12-inch  breech-load- 
ing mortars,  cast-iron  bodies  hooped  with  steel,  are 
now  under  construction,  by  contract,  for  the  land 
service. 

The  length  of  bore  of  a  cannon  should  be  such 
as  to  hold  the  projectile  until  the  entire  charge  is 
converted  into  gas.  With  smooth-bore  guns  this  is 
about  IG  calibres — with  modern  rifled  guns,  using 


t>4  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

l)eavy  fhai'iies  of  slow-lxirninjj;  })o\v(ler,  a  length  of 
about  35-calil)res  is  the  one  now  usually  adopted. 
Guns  of  40  calibres  are  being  designed  in  the  United 
States.  Abroad,  guns  of  50  calibres  length  are  pro- 
posed. 

The  principal  strains  to  which  the  metal  of  a  gun 
is  subjected  are  (1)  the  tangential,  the  force  acting 
directly  outwards  and  such  as  would  tend  to  burst 
the  hoops  of  a  barrel;  (2)  transverse,  sucli  as  would 
bend  outward  the  staves  of  a  barrel,  and  (3)  longi- 
tudinal, the  force  that  tends  to  })ull  the  gun  a})art  in 
the  direction  of  its  length,  and  is  maximum  at  the 
bottom  of  tlie  l)ore  and  zero  at  the  muzzle. 

The  Calibre  of  a  gun  is  the  diameter  of  the  bore 
expressed  in  inches  or  centimetres.  In  the  United 
fStates  and  all  European  countries,  exce})t  England, 
guns  are  designated  by  their  calibre;  in  England 
by  their  weight  in  tons.  Formerh'  the  weight  of 
a  spherical  Ijall  was  used  to  designate  calibre  ;  0, 12, 
24,  32,  and  04  pounders,  were  the  guns  in  use  in 
the  United  states  up  to  the  time  of  the  Rebellion. 

During  and  since  the  Rebellion  the  United  States 
has  fabricated  smooth-bore  cast-iron  guns  in  great 
variety  ami  in  large  mimliers — loand  20-inch  guns 
leading  the  list.  The  ballistic  capabilities  of  this 
system  of  guns  have  never  been  exceeded  l)y  any 
sniooth-l»ore  guns  ever  made,  but  in  the  modern 
game  of  way  the   siiioo(h-1)ore   cannon    is  quite  as 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  95 

antiquated  as  the  smooth-bore  musket  of  forty  years 
ago.  It  may  be  added  that  the  ballistic  tests  of  our 
new  breech -loading  ordnance  show  it  to  be  tlie 
equal  of  any  now  in  existence  of  like  calibres. 

MODERN    ARTILLERY. 

Artillery  in  general  is  divided  into  three  classes 
— Field,  Siege,  ai.id  Sea-coast.  The  first  must  pos- 
sess sufficient  mobility  to  accompany  troops  in  the 
field  ;  the  second  be  of  a  weight  tluit  will  admit  of 
its  being  transported  over  ordinary  roads,  while 
the  last  class  embraces  all  heavy  guns  intended  for 
the  defense  of  sea-coasts  and  harbors.  In  addition 
to  guns  proper,  there  are  mortars  belonging  to  each 
of  the  three  classes — a  mortar  being  a  short  piece 
using  a  small  charge  of  powder,  and  intended  for 
vertical  fire  only. 

All  modern  guns  are  rifled,  and,  without  excep- 
tion, breech-loaders.  Steel,  either  wholly  or  in  i)art, 
is  to-day  the  universal  cannon  metal  of  the  world. 

Rifles  and  Rifling. — The  rifling  of  a  fire-arm 
has  for  its  object  an  increase  in  accuracy,  range  and 
penetration.  By  giving  an  oblong  projectile  a  rapid 
rotary  motion  about  its  longer  axis,  the  inclination 
to  turn  end  for  end  is  overcome.  We  are,  therefore, 
by  increasing  its  length,  able  to  obtain  for  any  given 
diameter  of  projectile  a  greatly  increased  weight  of 
metal  over  one  spherical  in  shape.     With   an  in- 


96  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

creased  ability  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  tlie  air^ 
which  weight  implies,  come  increased  range  and 
penetration.  The  rotary  motion  gives  to  the  projec- 
tile greater  stability  by  distributing  over  the  whole 
area  of  resistance  any  defects  or  inequalities  in  the 
form  or  structure  of  the  projectile  itself. 

The  rotary  motion  is  communicated  to  tiie  pro- 
jectile either  (1)  by  giving  a  peculiar  shape  to  the 
bore,  as  in  the  English  Whitworth  gun  (a  hexagon), 
(2)  Iw  studs  on  tlie  body  of  the  projectile  to  fit  into 
corresponding  grooves  in  the  gun,  as  in  all  early 
European  systems,  now  abandoned  ;  or  (3)  by  a 
band  of  soft  metal — copper  or  brass — fitted  to  the 
base  of  the  projectile  and  forced  into  the  grooves  of 
the  gun  by  the  explosion  of  the  charge.  This  is 
now  the  universally  adopted  system. 

With  the  stud  system,  the  grooves  in  the  gun 
were  feiv  and  deep,  relatively  ;  but  with  the  present 
system  they  are  many  and  shallow.  In  our  new 
8-inch  Navy  gUns  the  grooves  are  .05  inch  in  depth 
and  ;j2  in  number,  with  increasing  twist. 

The  Velocity  of  Rotation  of  a  projectile  de- 
pends on  the  "  twist "  given  to  the  grooves,  which 
is  measured  Ijy  the  lengtli  of  one  complete  turn  of 
the  spiral.  Formerly,  this  was  usually  uniform, 
with  one  turn  in  about  40  calibres,  or  twice  the 
length  of  the  gun.  Now,  with  increasing  twist,  it 
begins  with  one  turn  in  from  120  to  140  calibres,, 
and  ends  in  one  turn  in  from  30  to  40  calibres. 


NOTES   ON    MILITARY   SCIENCE.  97 

Field-Guns.  —  Among  modern  field-guns , 
Krupp's  9.6  cm.  (3.46  in.)  may  be  taken  as  a  repre- 
sentative of  European  guns.  It  weiglis  1,375  pounds, 
carries  a  shell  of  26  pounds,  has  a  carriage  of  com- 
pressed steel  plate,  and  is  provided  with  a  simple 
brake  to  take  up  the  recoil.  At  30  degrees  elevation 
it  has  given  a  range  of  9,000  yards ;  and  in  practice, 
out  of  6  shots  fired  at  a  target  lU'x  16|',  at  2,200 
yards,  5  shots  struck  the  target,  with  a  mean  hori- 
zontal deviation  of  only  13  inches  and  a  mean  verti- 
cal deviation  of  28  inches. 

It  should  be  stated  that  15  degrees  is  about 
the  maximum  practicable  elevation  for  field-guns. 
With  this  elevation,  the  9.6  cm.  gun  has  a  range 
of  about  6,000  yards. 

The  United  States  is  represented  by  a  3.2  and  a 
3.6-inch  gun,  a  3.6  mortar  and  a  3-inch  Hotchkiss 
mountain-gun — all  of  steel  and  all  breech-loaders. 

Siege  Artillery  in  our  service  is  represented  by 
a  5-inch  gun  and  a  7-inch  howitzer,  steel  breech- 
loaders, and  by  8  and  10-iuch  cast-iron  mortars,  old 
model. 

Sea-Coast  Guns. — Among  heavy  guns,  Krupp's 
119-ton  guns  are  the  heaviest  yet  constructed  and 
in  actual  use.  Four  have  been  made  for  the  Italian 
government ;  they  have  a  calibre  of  15.75  inches,  a 
2,000-pound  shot  and  use  800  pounds  of  powder. 
In  a  recent  practice  at  2,700  yards,  in  9  shots  there 


98  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

was  but  1  metre  vertical  and  2  of  mean  lateral  de- 
viation. One  of  these  guns,  retained  hy  the  Krupps 
for  trial  purposes,  has  already  been  fired  more  than 
200  rounds  and  is  still  in  serviceable  condition. 

In  the  United  States  our  dej^endence  is,  for  coast 
defense,  still  largely  upon  the  15-inch  smooth-bore, 
supplemented  by  a  few  6  and  8-inch  muzzle-loading 
rifles,  converted  from  smooth-bore  cast-iron  pieces 
by  boring  out  and  inserting  a  steel  tube.  Of  ex- 
perimental guns  for  the  land  service  we  have  under 
construction  a  12-inch  l)reech-loat]iiig  cast-iron  rifle, 
tubed  with  steel  ;  a  similar  piece  l)()th  hooped  and 
tubed  with  steel  :  two  breech-loading  10-inch,  wire- 
wrapped  rifles,  one  of  steel  and  one  of  cast-iron. 

Nine  110-ton  guns  represent  the  heaviest  type  of 
English  ordnance.  A  number  of  these  guns  have 
proved  failures  after  issue  to  the  service.  With  re- 
gard to  guns  for  naval  use,  a  reaction  lias  set  in  in 
favor  of  smaller  calibres.  A  gun  of  about  lo-inch 
bore  and  65  tons  weight  is  believed  to  be  the  heavi- 
est that  will  hereafter  be  constructed  for  use  on 
shipl;)oard. 

In  1889  two  ()-inch,  cast-steel,  breech-loading  rifles 
were  submitted  for  test  Ijy  private  manufactnroi's. 
One  was  of  Bessemer,  the  other  of  open-h earth  steel, 
and  both  had  the  general  dimensions  of  the  6-in. 
naval  gun.  The  Bessemer  gun  burst  on  the  second 
round  ;  the  other  withstood  the  ten  test  rounds,  but 


NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 


99 


an  enlargement  of  the  bore  and  other  defects  led  to 
its  condemnation. 

RAPID-FIRING   GUNS. 

These  liave  been  divided  into  three  general  classes  : 
(1)  Machine  Guns,  (2)  Macliine  or  Revolving  Can- 
non, and  (3)  Ra])id-Fire  Guns. 

A  Machine  Gun  has  been  defined  as  a  single  or 
multi-barreled  gun,  mounted  on  a  stand  or  carriage, 
which  feeds,  loads  fires,  and  ejects  the  empty  car- 
tridge cases  automatically.  These  guns  usually  use 
small-arm  ammunition,  although  any  gun  of  this 
kind  having  projectiles  of  less  than  400  grammes 
(15  oz.)  comes  under  this  class. 

A  Machine  or  Revolving  Cannon  is  like  a  ma- 
chine gun,  except  that  it  uses  projectiles  of  more 
than  400  grammes,  usually  from  one  to  four  pounds 
in  weight,  and  does  not  always  /?re  automatically. 

A  Rapid-fire  Gun  is  a  breech-loading  gun 
mounted  on  a  stand  or  carriage,  and  differs  from 
the  macliine  gun  or  revolving  cannon  in  that  each 
round,  containing  projectile,  charge  and  the  fulmi- 
nate for  its  ignition,  is  contained  in  a  metallic  case. 
It  is  automatic  only  in  the  ejection  of  the  empty 
cartridge-case  and  the  cocking  of  the  piece  by  the 
o|)ening  of  tlie  breech  after  firing. 

Of  the  first  class,  the  pioneer  was  the  French 
INIontigne}',  the   Mitrailleur,  which   figured   in  the 


100  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

Franco-German  war.  It  was  a  clumsy  piece,  firing 
but  150  shots  per  minute.  The  American  Gatling 
ma}'  be  taken  as  a  typical  arm.  It  has  ten  barrels^ 
revolving  about  a  central  spindle,  of  .45  inch  and  1 
inch  calibres.  The  smaller  calibre  uses  small-arm 
ammunition,  and  can  fire,  on  a  spurt,  1,200  shots 
per  minute.  The  Gardner  has  two  barrels,  also  uses 
small-arm  ammunition,  and  can  be  fired  350  times 
per  minute. 

The  Maxim  is  the  latest  pattern  of  this  class  of 
gun.  It  has  a  single  barrel,  mounted  on  a  tripod^ 
and  uses  service  ammunition.  It  is  automatic 
throughout.  After  the  first  fire,  the  recoil  extracts 
the  empty  shell,  loads  and  fires  automatically  as  long 
as  cartridges  are  supplied.  These  are  arranged 
(334)  in  a  single  row  upon  a  tape,  and  by  engaging 
one  end  in  the  mechanism,  one  after  another  is 
drawn  in  until  the  tape  is  exhausted.  It  weighs  but 
85  pounds,  and  can  fire  600  shots  per  minute,  requir- 
ing but  one  man  to  operate  it. 

Of  the  second  class,  there  is  the  Hotchkiss, 
with  five  barrels,  of  various  calibres,  the  largest 
throwing  projectiles  of  2  and  4  pounds  weight,  at 
the  rate  of  about  60  per  minute;  tlie  Nordenfeldt,. 
with  from  1  to  10  barrels,  of  a  variety  of  calibres, 
the  largest  having  a  })rojectile  of  about  4  pounds. 
With  the  5  and  10  barrel  guns,  the  shots  can  be 
fired  singly  or  in  volleys.     On  a  spurt  it  can  be  fired 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  101 

at  the  rate  of  from  600  to  800  shots  per  minute. 
Both  the  Hotchkiss  and  Nordenfeldt  use  steel  pro- 
jectiles— shot  and  shell — and  form  a  part  of  the 
armament  of  every  modern  vessel  of  war,  as  a 
weapon  against  torpedo  boats  and  for  sweeping  the 
decks  of  an  enemy's  ship. 

Of  the  third  class,  the  Armstrong,  Hotchkiss, 
Driggs-Schroeder,  and  Canet  are  the  more  important 
of  this  rapidly-growing  class  of  guns.  In  this  class 
of  guns  each  projectile  is  handled  separately.  They 
differ  from  the  ordinary  field  gun  in  that  the  ammu- 
nition is  "  fixed  " — that  is,  the  charge  and  projectile 
is  secured  in  a  metal  case,  much  like  a  round  of 
rifle  ammunition.  The  projectiles  are  of  various 
weights  from  1  to  100  pounds.  In  the  Armstrong 
system  the  45  (4.72")  and  the  100  pounders  (6")  are 
the  most  important.  The  6-inch  will  form  the 
main  battery  of  many  cruisers.  In  it  the  charge 
and  projectile  are  handled  separately.  Its  rate  is 
six  unaimed  shots  per  minute.  The  Canet  system 
(French)  embraces  guns  of  10,  12,  and  15  cm.  The 
15  cm.  gun  has  the  distinction  of  having,  with  a 
charge  of  smokeless  powder,  given  to  an  88-pound 
projectile  a  higher  velocity  than  has  ever  before 
been  obtained  from  any  gun — 2,857  feet  j)er  second. 
The  Hotchkiss  system  has  guns  from  1  to  33-pound- 
ers,  while  36.55  and  100-pounders  are  under  con- 
tract or  proposed.      The  6-pounder  can    be  fired, 


102  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

with  fair  aim,  15  shots  per  minute.  Generally 
speaking,  a  complete  round  of  ammunition  for  a 
rapid-fire  gun  should  not  exceed  a  weight  that  can 
be  handled  by  one  man. 

The  Dynamite  Gun  (See  Plate)  is  the  latest 
addition  to  projectile-throwing  machines.  It  is 
simply  an  air-gun,  the  propelling  force  being  com- 
pressed air.  The  original  gun  was  a  long  tube  of 
wrought  iron,  lined  with  brass — 60  feet  in  length 
and  8  inches  in  diameter — mounted  on  a  truss  hav- 
ing both  vertical  and  lateral  motion.  These  guns 
are  intended  wholly  for  throwing  a  projectile  con- 
taining a  large  charge  of  the  high  explosives.  The 
projectile  is  a  case  of  thin  steel,  with  tail-piece  of 
wood,  the  whole  being  about  six  feet  in  length. 
The  later  type  of  these  guns  is  of  15-inch  calibre, 
mounted  with  trunnions;  the  barrel  of  thin  cast- 
iron,  40  calibres  in  length ;  has  a  range  of  about 
one  mile,  and  is  capable  of  throwing  500  pounds  of 
high  explosive  under  a  pressure  of  1,000  pounds  per 
square  inch.  The  new  dynamite  cruiser  Vesuvius 
has  an  armament  of  three  pneumatic  guns,  built 
into  the  ship.  They  are  54  feet  long,  with  a  15-inch 
bore. 

On  page  104  is  given  a  table  showing  the  best 
guns  now  adopted,  or  undergoing  trial,  by  the  dif- 
ferent powers. 


notes  ox  military  science. 
Plate  VIII. 


103 


'^rtliL 


'11 


\  M 


lU 


lOk*- 


««'■ 


v.\ 


,v. 


0 
e 


s5 

2 


104 


NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 


RAPID-FIRE  GUNS. 


England....   Armstrong 2 

Germany..   Krupp 

France Canet 


U.  States....'  Hotchki-ss 

"       ...   Driggs-Schroeder. 


>3 

^: 

6 

te 

o 

'S   K 

'Q 

£ 

a-^ 

a 

Country. 

Character  of  gun. 

o 

o 

te 

c  a 

-Q 

H 

"" 

^ 

w 

?*  c 

o  a 

O  oj 

.a 

9 

s 

0) 

0 

«  0 

II 

Length 
calibre 

1^ 

p--- 

28.42 

p, 

O 

England... 

W  t.iron&  steel,  iM.L. 

100. 

17.75 

575 

2000 

1735 

41,720 

20. 

Steel,  B.L. 

111. 

lli.25 

8.50 

1800 

2148 

57, .580 

30. 

35.3 

li 

67. 
74.2 

13.5 
16..54 

.520 
,595 

1250 
1720 

2025 
1692 

35,.540 
34,140 

30. 
^2. 

29.4 
26.1 

France 

"       "    (42  cm.) 

it 

"        "    (32  cm.) 

"        "    (Canet,  32 
cm.) 

51.9 
72.-5 

13.39 
12.6 

337 
562 

936 

988 

1968 
2308 

24,870 
86,490 

28.5 
40. 

24.8 
31.88 

Germany. 

"        "     (Krupp) .... 

71. 

15.75 

485 

1715 

1700 

34,-500 

21.8 

28. 

Italy 

"        "    (Armst'g).. 

105. 

17. 

772 

2000 

1814 

45,675 

27. 

29.7 

"    (Krupp) 

"    (32  cm.) 

119. 
48.4 

15.75 
12.6 

845 

485 

2314 

1058 

1900 
2050 

-58,122 
30,840 

31.7 
35. 

35.68 

28.4 

Spain 

U.  States... 

"       "    (Army) 

14.5 

8. 

130 

300 

1935 

7,787 

32. 

18.-58 

"        .... 

"       "    (Navy) 

13.1 

8. 

115 

^-.50 

2080 

7,498 

35. 

18.22 

" 

"       "    (Army) 

30. 

10. 

256 

575 

1940 

15,000 

34. 

23.0:^ 

" 

"    (Navy) 

28  2 

10, 

240 

.500 

2100 

15,285 

35. 

2:125 

" 

"       "    (Army) 

52. 

12. 

440 

1000 

1940 

26,100 

34. 

27  ..58 

" 

"        "    (Navy; 

4.5.2 

12. 

425 

850 

2100 

25,990 

35. 

27.-52 

2. 

4.72 

12. 

45 

2380 

1768 

33. 

10.04 

5.5 

6. 

38. 

100 

2339 

3794 

40. 

14.97 

1.3 

4.13 

8.6 

40 

1729 

829 

35. 

8.43 

2.4 

5.12 

17.6 

66 

1640 

1231 

35, 

9.14 

3.2 

4.72 

23. 

46 

2493 

1982 

48. 

12.26 

6.2 

5.91 

44. 

S8 

2493 

3793 

48. 

14.99 

2.1 

4.72 

26.7 

.55 

2288 

1986 

37. 

12.22 

1.5 

4. 

12.5 

37 

1900 

901 

45. 

8.8 

Note. —  Roughly  speaking,  a  pointed  projectile  will  penetrate  its  diameter  in 
wrouglit  iron  for  every  1,000  feet  of  velocity  at  moment  of  impact.  For  penetration 
in  steel,  an  allowance  of  25  to  30  per  cent,  must  Ije  made. 

A  steel  built-up  gun  will  cost  about  Sl.OOO  per  ton. 


CHAPTER  XL 

PRA.CTICAL  GUNNERY. 

The  Science  of  Gunnery  treats  of  projectiles 
iind  their  effects.  Ballistics,  that  branch  of  it  rehit- 
ing  to  their  motion. 

The  trajectory  of  a  projectile  is  its  path  through 
the  air.  This  is  a  modified  parabola,  the  de.scend- 
ino-  branch  being  shorter  than  the  ascendino-. 

The  initial  velocity  is  the  velocity  with  which  a 
projectile  leaves  the  muzzle  of  the  gun,  and  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  number  of  feet  passed  over  in  a 
second  of  time.  This  is  measured  by  electro-ballis- 
tic machines  of  various  kinds.  These  machines 
consist  essentially  of  two  wire  targets  in  the  path  of 
the  projectile,  near  the  muzzle  of  the  piece,  each  in 
a  separate  electrical  circuit,  and  connected  with  the 
electro-ballistic  machines  proper.  The  projectile 
cutting  successively  the  wires  of  the  targets,  breaks 
the  currents.  The  breaking  of  the  first  circuit  re- 
leases a  weight,  a  pendulum,  or  projects  a  spark 
upon  the  blackened  surface  of  a  rapidly  revolving 
cylinder ;  the  breaking  of  the  second  marks  the 
distance  through  which  the  weight  has  fallen,  the 
length  of  the  arc  described  by  the  pendulum,  or  the 
revolution  of  the  cvlinder  ;  then  '^^=velocity. 

(105) 


lOG  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

The  early  artillerists  ignored  the  resistance  of  the 
air  in  calculating  the  trajectory  of  a  projectile, 
taking  the  trajector\'  in  vacuo  as  a  true  expression. 
This  is  nearly  correct  for  heavy  projectiles  thrown 
with  moderate  velocity,  but  under  no  other  condi- 
tions. 

The  resistance  of  the  air  to  a  projectile  increases 
with  the  velocity,  but  no  exact  law  for  this  increase 
is  known.  It  is  found  approximately  that  the  resist- 
ance of  the  air  varies  as  the  cube  of  the  velocity. 
This  is  nearly  true  for  a  certain  range  of  velocity, 
but  is  by  no  means  a  general  law.  The  exact 
amount  of  the  resistance  at  any  velocity  is  obtained 
by  the  use  of  a  co-efficient  K,  which  varies  with  the 
velocity.  The  value  of  K  has  been  found  by  cal- 
culations from  the  result  of  many  ex))eriments  at 
various  velocities,  with  oblong  projectiles,  between 
100  and  2,900  foot-seconds,  and  tabulated. 

The  mathematical  expression  for  the  resistance  of 
the  air  may  be  written — 

R=d-^(j(^)'  lb.  avoirdupois.     (A)  in  which 
d=diameter  of  projectile  in  inches, 
gzr^acceleration  of  gravit}'  in  feet-seconds. 
v=velocity  in  feet-  seconds. 

K  is  a  co-efficient  varying  with  the  velocity,  and 
given  in  Bash  forth 's  table. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  107 

d?  is  employed  since  the  sectional  area  varies  as 
the  square  of  the  diameter.  The  constant  g  appears 
in  order  to  reduce  absolute  to  ordinary  gravitation 
units.  The  variable  co-efficient  K  allows  the  use 
of  the  simple  relation  that  the  resistance  varies  as  v^. 
1000^  is  used  for  convenience  only,  to  avoid  an  un- 
necessary number  of  ciphers  in  the  value  of  K,  as 
otherwise  it  would  be  a  very  small  decimal. 

In  calculating  the  value  of  K,  the  use  of  the  dif- 
ferent measures  of  length  in  the  above  expression 
{i.  e.,  inches  and  feet-seconds)  is  taken  into  consid- 
eration. 

If  the  pressure  of  the  air  in  pounds  on  what  is 
called  the  circuUir  inch — a  circle  one  inch  in  diam- 
eter— is  represented  by  p,  tlie  above  equation  be- 
comes. 

P=|(r^o)-^lb.     (B.) 

From  this  formula  a  table  may  be  calculated  for 
different  velocities,  and  the  resistance  on  a  projectile 
of  any  other  diameter  can  be  found  by  multiplying 
by  the  square  of  the  diameter  in  inches. 

The  values  of  the  co-efficient  K,  as  calculated,  are 
for  a  certain  shape  of  head  of  projectile  (with  curve 
struck  with  a  radius  of  1^  diameters),  and  for 
normal  atmospheric  conditions.  When  any  other 
shaped  projectile  is  considered,  or  the  density  of  the 
atmosphere  is  not  normal,  certain  corrections  must 


108  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

be  applied  to  K,  and  the  equation  for  the  resistance 
becomes 

R=:d"  0  r|  {moY  lb.  avoirdupois.     (C.) 

In  which  0  is  an  empirical  factor  depending  on  the 
shape  of  the  projectile  and  its  steadiness  of  flight, 
and  T  a  factor  depending  on  the  density  of  the 
air — barometric  pressure,  temperature  and  humidity 
being  considered. 

The  Loss  of  Velocity  due  to  this  resistance  may  be 
calculated  by  the  aid  of  the  above  equation.  The 
effect  of  a  pressure  or  resistance  (R)  acting  on  a 
projectile  is  to  cause  acceleration  (in  this  case  a  re- 
tardation) in  the  velocity,  represented  by/,  and  the 
amount  of  it  is  known  from  the  law  of  dynamics  ex- 
pressed by  the  proportion. 

R  :  w  :  : — f  :  g. 

Where  w=weight  of  projectile  in  pounds. 

Hence,  retardation  f= —  ^.  g. 


w  b" 


Substituting  the  value  of  R  from  the  preceding 
equation,  we  have 

Which  is  the  rate  of  loss  of  velocity  in   feet  per 
second  caused  ])y  the  resistance  R  in  pounds. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  equations  (A),  (B),  and 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  109' 

(C),  that  the  resistance  of  the  air  is  independent  of 
the  weight  of  the  projectile,  but  from  equation  (D) 
that  the  retardation  is  inversely  as  the  weight. 
Hence,  with  projectiles  of  the  same  diameter,  and 
moving  with  the  same  velocities,  the  resistances  are 
equal,  but  the  retardation  on  the  heavier  is  less  than 
on  the  lighter. 

Example  : — Find  the  resistance  of  the  air  and  re- 
tardation to  a  12.5-inch  shell,  moving  at  a  velocity 
of  1,400  f.s,  atmospheric  conditions  normal.  Weight 
of  shell=802.25  lbs. ;  diameter  of  shell=12.5  in. 

Substituting  ii  (A),  (K  for  1,400  fs  velocity^ 
104.7), 

R=(12.5)^i,  (SS)-^=1395  1bs. 


'802.25 


(104.7),  (£)-^=55.96  feet-seconds. 


The  above  represents  the  resistance  and  weight  of 
retardation  at  the  instant  that  the  velocity  is  1,400  f.  s. 

Deviation  of  Projectiles.  Oblong  projectiles 
deviate  from  various  causes,  but  the  principal  one  is 
"  drift."  This,  with  guns  having  a  right-handed 
twist,  is  to  the  right,  and  is  caused  by  the  rotation, 
the  resistance  of  the  air  which  acts  at  the  -center  of 
the  'figure,  and  the  consequent  inclination  of  the  pro- 
jectile to  turn  about  its  shorter  axis.  The  resultant 
of  the  antagonistic  forces  cause  the  projectile  to 
move  to  the  right  of  the  plane  of  fire.     With  the 


110  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

Springfield  rifle  tlie  drift  is  5  inches  at  300  yards, 
and  43  inches  at  1000  yards.  The  rotation  of  the 
earth  is  another  cause  of  deviation  where  the  direc- 
tion of  the  fire  is  not  due  east  or  west. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  fire — direct,  vertical  and 
ricochet.  The  first  is  indicated  by  its  name;  the 
second,  that  of  mortars,  usually  fired  under  an  angle 
of  about  45  degrees,  in  which  the  descending  branch 
of  the  trajector}'  is  vertical;  and  the  third,  where 
the  projectile  striking  water  or  earth  under  a  small 
angle  makes  a  series  of  rebounds,  or  ricochets.  It  is 
only  effective  with  spherical  projectiles. 

Rapidity  of  Fire  depends  largely  upon  the  means 
of  loading.  On  shipboard,  where  this  is  done  by 
machinery,  the  100-ton  gun  has  Ijeen  loaded  by 
three  or  four  men  in  less  than  a  minute.  It  takes 
about  five  minutes  to  sj)onge,  load,  aim  and  fire  one 
of  our  lo-inch  guns.  Field-guns  can  be  fired  from 
two  to  four  times  a  minute,  in  guns  of  moderate 
length,  muzzle-loaders  (|uicker  than  breech-loaders. 

The  Range  of  a  Projectile  is  varied  with  mor- 
tars by  increasing  or  diminishing  the  charge  of 
powder;  with  guns  the  charge  remains  constant, 
and  range  varied  by  a  change  of  the  angle  of  ele- 
vation. The  extreme  range  and  the  practicable 
range  of  a  gun  are  two  quite  different  things.  The 
extreme  range  of  the  best  heavy  gun  is  about  twelve 
jniles.     On  shipboard  the  greatest  elevation  that  it 


NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE,  111 

is  possible  to  give  this  piece,  will  give  a  range  of 
about  seven  miles.  In  land  batteries  a  greater 
degree  of  elevation  can  be  given,  but  the  difficulty 
of  controlling  the  recoil,  and  the  enormous  strain 
brought  upon  the  carriage  when  a  gun  is  fired  under 
high  angles,  are  such  as  to  reduce  the  practicable  to 
between  a  half  and  two-thirds  of  the  possible  range. 

The  greatest  distance  that  a  projectile  has  ever 
been  actually  thrown  was  probably  at  Slioebur3'ness, 
in  April,  1887,  during  the  English  jubilee.  A  9.2- 
inch  wire-wound  gun,  with  a  charge  of  270  and  a 
projectile  of  380  pounds,  and  an  elevation  of  45°, 
landed  its  shot  21,800  yards  away  (12.33  miles). 

The  Penetration  of  Projectiles  into  parapets 
of  earth,  well  settled  or  rammed,  is,  for  field  guns, 
from  10  to  ]  5  feet ;  for  siege  guns  a  little  more ;  the 
15-inch  smooth-bore  gun,  about  22  feet,  but  against 
the  best  modern  rifled  ordnance  a  thickness  of  from 
70  to  75  feet  is  necessary  for  perfect  protection. 

The  standard  of  penetration  for  a  modern  high- 
power  rifled  gun  is  the  thickness  of  ivroughf-iron 
plate  its  projectile  will  perforate.  Roughly  esti- 
mated this  will  equal  one  calibre  for  every  thou- 
sand feet  of  velocity  at  instant  of  impact.  Against 
steel  plates  an  allowance  of  from  25  to  30  per  cent, 
must  be  made. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

PYROTECHNY  AND  PROJECTILES. 

Pyrotechny  treats  of  the  preparation  of  ammuni- 
tion of  all  kinds,  fuses,  primers,  offensive  and  orna- 
mental fireworks. 

Projectiles  are  divided  as  to  form  into  two  general 
classes — spherical  and  oblong.  The  first  are  used  in 
smooth-bore,  the  latter  in  rifled  guns.  They  are 
further  divided  as  to  structure  into  solid,  hollow  and 
case  shot. 

Solid  Shot  are  intended  to  act  by  force  of  impact 
alone ;  to  batter  down  walls  or  heavy  obstructions 
of  any  kind.  Armor-piercing  shell  are  allied  to  this 
class.  Cored  shot  are  almost  identical  in  shape  with 
this  shell,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  cut,  the 
cavity  serving  to  throw  the  center  of  gravity  well  to 
the  front.  The  aperture  is  closed  with  a  screw- 
plug. 

Hollow  Projectiles  are  for  use  against  animate 
objects ;  to  set  fire  to  buildings  and  destroy  lighter 
obstructions.  They  are  shell  and  shrapnel.  A  sltell 
is  a  hollow  projectile  about  two-thirds  tlie  weight  of 
a  solid  shot  of  the  same  diameter,  and  contains  a 
bursting  cluirge.     A  shrapnel  is  a  shell  of  somewhat 

(112) 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  113 

thinner  walls  than  an  ordinary  shell,  filled  with 
bullets  and  containing  a  bursting  charge.  It  is  the 
most  effective  missile  against  troops  and  is  chiefly  so 
used. 

Under  the  head  of  case  shot  we  have  grape  and 
canister.  In  this  class  of  projectiles  no  bursting 
charge  is  used — the  smaller  projectiles  making  up 
the  case  separate  of  their  own  inertia  after  leaving 
the  muzzle  of  the  piece.  Grape  shot,  or  a  stand  of 
grape,  consists  of  nine  cast-iron  balls  held  together 
by  rings  and  a  bolt  and  nuts.  It  has  been  entirely 
supplanted  in  warfare  by  the  machine  gun.  Canis- 
ter is  simply  a  tin  or  sheet-iron  case  filled  with  bul- 
lets. It  is  only  effective  at  very  short  ranges — 400 
yards  as  a  maximum. 

The  accompanying  cut  (Plate  IX)  shows  the 
general  form  of  the  projectiles  above  mentioned. 
Projectiles  for  rifle  guns  vary  in  length  from  2i  to 
3|^  calibres.  Rotary  motion  is  communicated  in 
two  general  ways  ;  either  by  a  copper  or  soft-metal 
band  at  the  base,  which  is  forced  outwards  and  into 
the  grooves  of  the  gun  by  the  action  of  the  powder- 
gases,  or  by  a  like  band  of  metal  a  little  forward  of 
the  base  of  the  projectile,  and  of  a  slightly  greater 
diameter  than  that  across  the  lands  of  tiie  rifling 
and  is  compressed  into  the  grooves  as  it  moves  for- 
ward from  the  chamber  into  the  rifled  portion  of  the 
bore. 


114 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

Plate  IX. 


Shell 


Crafie 


Canist 


BrhileHCurti) 


a 


/ 

A  \ 

\         \ 

A,  / 

\ 

\ 

r 

i 

r 

^'-■:^ J 

3J 

hanerin^  Shell       Commori.Shl}       %vu\^ml 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  115 

Chilled  iron,  cast  steel,  chilled  steel,  hammered 
and  tempered  steel,  have  all  been  experimented  with 
against  iron  and  steel  armor-plates.  The  last  has 
proved  superior  to  all  others.  Steel  projectiles  of 
this  kind  are  very  expensive — costing  from  15  to  25 
cents  per  pound. 

Rockets  (war)  differ  from  other  projectiles  in 
that  they  carry  the  propeling  force  within  them- 
selves. The  English  war  rocket  (Congreve)  is 
guided  by  a  stick  attached  to  the  center  of  the  base. 
In  Hale's  American  rocket  stability  is  secured  by 
giving  the  rocket  a  rotary  motion  about  its  longer 
axis.  This  is  done  by  means  of  tangential  vents  on 
the  side.  It  has  no  guide-stick.  All  war  rockets 
are  surmounted  l^y  a  shell  or  solid  shot  at  the  head. 
Rockets  have  been  Imt  little  used  in  late  warfare. 

Incendiary  Fire- works,  such  as  Greek-fire,  fire- 
stone,  etc.,  are  com])ositions  that  burn  slowly  but 
with  great  intensity.  They  are  placed  in  shell  along 
with  the  bursting  charge,  to  set  fire  to  ships,  build- 
ings, etc.,  and  are  extinguished  with  great  difficulty. 

The  composition  for  ornainiental  fire-ivorks  is 
usually  charcoal,  sulphur  and  chlorate  of  potash,  to 
which  are  added  various  ingredients  to  obtain  bril- 
liancy and  the  different  colors. 

Fuses. — A  fuse  is  a  contrivance  for  communicat- 
ing fire  to  the  bursting  charge  of  a  shell.  It  con- 
sists essentially  of  a  paj)er,  wood  or  metal  case  con- 


116 


NOTES   ON    MILITARY   SCIENCE. 


taining  a  composition  of  the  same  ingredients  as 
gunpowder.  There  are  three  general  classes, — timer 
percussion  and  concussion,  to  which  may  be  added 
the  combination,  which  is  both  a  percussion  and  a 
time  fuse.     A  time  fuse  is  one  that  can  be  cut  or  set 

Plate  X. 


A?**cyer  _ a,<i. 


BraaWires c.c. 

Lead d.d- 

erass ».«. 

*ir  Spac».,.f,K 


Hoichkiss  Point'  Percussion  Fuse. 
to  burn  any  desired  length  of  time,  up  to  the  maxi- 
mum of  from  10  to  20  seconds.  The  rate  of  burn- 
ing is  reguhxted  by  the  proportion  of  the  ingredients 
and  tlie  density  with  which  the  composition  is 
driven  into  the  case.     The  composition  is  ignited  by 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  117 

the  flame  from  the  charge.  A  percussion  fuse  is  one 
that  acts  upon  impact  alone.  It  may  be  placed 
either  at  the  head  or  base  of  the  projectile.  AVhere 
penetration  is  desired  before  explosion,  as  against 
armor-plates,  it  is  placed  at  the  base.  The  projec- 
tile should  strike  point  first  to  insure  certain  action. 
A  concussion  fuse  acts  whenever  the  projectile  strikes 
a  solid  object.  A  combination  fuse  combines  the 
principles  of  a  time  and  a  percussion  fuse.  If  the 
time  composition  fails  to  act,  the  percussion  part 
comes  into  play  upon  impact ;  or  the  percussion 
arrangement  may  be  made  to  act  upon  discharge 
and  ignite  a  time  composition.  Plate  X  shows  the 
action  of  a  Point  Percussion  fuse. 

Primers.  A  friction  primer  is  a  contrivance  for 
igniting  the  charge  in  a  gun.  It  consists  of  two 
hollow  brass  tubes  soldered  together  at  right  angles ; 
the  longer  one  contains  rifle  powder,  the  shorter  one 
a  roughened  wire  and  fulminate.  The  end  of  the 
wire  is  bent  into  a  loop  into  which  the  lanyard  is 
hooked.  Heavy  guns  are  now  fired  by  electrical 
primers.  In  this  primer  the  terminals  are  joined  by 
a  bit  of  fine  platinum  wire,  and  surrounded  b}'  a 
little  fulminate  or  dry  gun  cotton. 

Cartridge  bags  are  made  of  woolen  or  silk  ma- 
terial. Under  no  circumstances  should  cotton  be 
used. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

FORTIFICATIONS. 

A  FORTIFICATION  is  any  artiticial  protection 
against  an  enemy.  They  are  of  two  general 
classes — Permanent  and  Field  Works.  The  first  are 
constructed  of  durable  materials  and  with  great  care^ 
and  are  intended  for  permanent  occupancy.  The 
second  are  for  temporary  use  only  ;  often  hastily 
constructed,  usually  of  earth  or  timber,  or  any 
material  that  may  be  at  hand  that  will  afford  pro- 
tection. 

FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS. 

Under  the  conditions  of  modern  warfare  the  spade 
has  become  almost  as  much  of  a  soldier's  weapon  as 
the  rifle,  and  in  nearly  all  European  armies  a  certain 
number  of  men  in  each  com[)any — usually  every 
fourth  man — carry  a  short-handled  spade  for  in- 
trenching purposes. 

The  simplest  form  of  fortification  is  the  simple 
trench  (Fig.  1,  Plate  XI) — a  ditch  with  the  earth 
thrown  toward  the  enemy,  aff'ording  cover  from  his 
fire  but  no  facilities  for  offensive  action,  unless 
means  are  i)rovided  for  the  deliver}'^  of  fire,  and  for 
advancing  over  the  parapet,  as  in  Fig.  2. 

(118) 


NOTKS    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  119 

Plate  XI. 


'y^.i^.i-'.'f^.^yiJ'"^ 


T,o  fc 


120  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

For  artillery  defense,  something  more  than  a  par- 
apet is  needed — something  that  will  present  an  oh- 
stacle  to  the  advance  of  infantry  against  the  guns. 
This  takes  the  form  of  a  parapet  and  ditch,  in  which 
the  earth  from  the  ditch  is  thrown  in  direction  from 
the  enemy  to  form  the  parapet,  the  ditch  offering  a 
serious  obstacle  to  assault.  Its  general  form  is 
shown  in  Fig  1,  Plate  XII,  and  its  nomenclature  is 
as  follows  :  A-B,  Banquette  Tread  ;  B-C,  Banquette  ; 
C-D,  Interior  Slope ;  D-E,  Superior  Slope  ;  E-F, 
Exterior  Slope ;  F-G,  Berm ;  G-H,  Scarp ;  J-K, 
Counterscarp  ;  L-M,  Glacis ;  D,  Interior  Crest ;  E, 
Exterior  Crest ;  T,  Abattis. 

Of  simple  field  works  for  artillery  defense,  we 
have  the  Redan  (Fig.  4)  and  the  Lunette  (Fig.  5). 
The  first  is  a  work  of  two  faces  only,  like  an  inverted 
V ;  the  second  has  two  flanks  added.  The  objec- 
tion to  this  class  of  works  is  that  thc}^  are  o))en  at 
the  "  gorge."  This  is  remedied  by  enclosing  the 
entire  work  with  a  jDarapet,  when  it  takes  the  name 
of  Redoubt.  Any  enclosed  work  is  so  called.  It 
may  be  of  any  regular  figure  ;  if  a  square,  with  lu- 
nettes added  to  the  sides,  it  becomes  a  star  fort 
(Fig  3.) 

The  most  perfect  form  of  fortification  is  a  bas- 
tioned  ivork.  It  is  the  only  work  that  secures  fire 
over  every  possible  direction  of  approach,  as  well  as 
upon  all  parts  of  the  ditch.  It  may  have  for  its  basis 
any  regular  figure,  usually  a   square  or   j>entagon. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

Plate  XII. 


121 


o 


cO 

^ 

■c 

o 

az 

>. 

o 

^    Q 

^ 

5     t 

122  MOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

Its  form  is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  and  its  nomenclature 
is  as  follows :  A-B,  Exterior  Side ;  A-C  and  B-D, 
Faces;  C-E  and  D-F,  Flanks;  A-F  and  B-E,  Lines 
of  Defense;  J-H,  Capital. 

In  the  construction  of  tield-works,  the  line  of  the 
interior  crest  (D,  Fig.  1)  is  that  from  which  all  hori- 
zontal distances  are  measured.  The  command,  or 
height  of  the  interior  crest  above  the  natural  level  of 
the  ground,  should  never  be  less  than  8  feet;  the 
thickness  of  the  parapet  not  less  than  12  feet ;  the 
depth  of  the  ditch  at  least  8,  and  its  width  at  least  12 
feet.  If  for  defense  against  anything  heavier  than 
field-guns,  both  the  thickness  and  height  of  the  para- 
})et  should  be  considerably  increased. 

To  ascertain,  in  a  rough  way,  the  width  of  ditch 
necessary  to  furnisli  sufficient  earth  for  a  parapet  of 
given  thickness,  divide  the  area  of  the  profile  of  the 
parapet  b}^  the  assumed  depth  of  the  ditch. 

A  revetment  1*^  a  facing  of  stone,  sod,  sand-bags, 
timber,  etc.,  for  holding  earth  in  position.  A  fascine 
is  a  bundle  of  small  twigs  bound  together,  with  a 
usual  dinicnsion  of  !)"  x  10'  (Fig.  G,  Plate  XI).  A 
(jahion  is  a  wickr-r  basket  open  at  both  ends — 2'  x 
2'  9"  (Fig.  7).  Both  are  used  for  revetments,  and 
also  in  siege  operations. 

PERMANENT    FORTIFICATIONS. 

Ui>  to  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  rifled  guns 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  123 

of  high  power,  all  permanent  works  were  of  masonry, 
and  of  the  most  elaborate  design  and  construction. 
In  the  permanent  work  of  to-day,  iron  has  in  large 
measure  superseded  all  other  materials.  Modern 
fortifications  have  taken  the  forms  of  turrets — revolv- 
iqg  or  stationary — cupolas,  casemated  and  ironclad 
batteries,  of  cast-iron,  wrought. iron  or  steel.  All 
the  continental  powers,  except  France,  have  adopted 
the  Griison  chilled  cast-iron  plate  for  turrets.  These 
are  cast  in  curved  form,  the  largest  plates  yet  fabri- 
cated having  a  thickness  of  49  inches  at  the  center, 
and  decreasing  towards  the  top  and  bottom. 

Up  to  the  present  time,  the  English  have  used 
wrought  iron  exclusively-  in  the  construction  of 
turrets  for  sea-coast  defense.  Compound  plates,  of 
wrought  iron  faced  with  steel,  or  of  cast-iron,-  are 
likely  to  be  used  in  future.  In  France  the  all-steel 
plate  is  employed  in  turret  construction,  alone  or  in 
combination  w^th  concrete  backing. 

As  regards  cost,  the  Griison  cast-iron  plates  can 
be  man.ufactured  for  from  $150  to  $200  per  ton  ; 
wrought-iron  })lates,  from  $220  to  $330  per  ton  ;  the 
French  all-steel  plate,  about  $380  per  ton,  and  the 
largest  compound  plates,  weighing  about  50  tons 
per  plate,  about  $450  per  ton. 

In  the  construction  of  permanent  works  for  land 
defense,  as  of  a  city,  a  continuous  line  would  never 
be  attempted.     Resort  would  be  had  to  lines  of  de- 


124  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

tached  works  placed  on  commandiDg  points  and  in 
defensive  relation  to  each  other,  care  being  taken 
that  no  spot  Ijetween  adjacent  works  is  unswe])t  by 
iirtillery  fire. 

The  accompanying  cut  (Plate  XIII)  represents,  in 
vertical  section,  a  fortification  of  the  old  school,  with 
the  nomenclature  of  the  work. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

Plate  XIII. 


125 


<h 

^    1 

(a 

0,  ti 


a 


^  *-  "^  i  > 


CQ  «0  Q  Ui  k"  tS  i  -^  ^ 


^m 


mmmfi 


:.ir.r,'-..-.Hr,n,r,r-Hr;H 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
SIEGE   OPERATIONS. 

SIEGES  are  undertaken  for  the  capture  of  places 
that  can  not  be  carried  by  open  assault. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  by  the  besiegers  is,  if 
possible,  to  completely  surround  the  place,  cutting 
it  off  entirely  from  communication  with  the  outside 
world  ;  then  to  provide  for  defense  against  attacks 
both  from  within  and  without;  to  construct  maga- 
zines and  store-houses,  and  to  collect  all  the  material 
needed  for  subsec[uent  operations.  This  is  called 
the  First  Period. 

The  point  chosen  for  attack  is  usually  the  salient 
of  a  bastion  and  its  adjacent  out-works. 

When  everything  is  ready  the  Second  Period 
begins  with  the  opening  of  the  first  parallel. 

The  Parallels  are  wide  ditches,  tliree  or  more  in 
number,  having  a  general  direction  parallel  to  the 
besieged  work,  and  of  sufficient  length  to  envelop 
the  point  of  attack.  Here  are  brought  all  the  tools 
and  materials  to  be  used,  and  here  the  guards  for 
the  protfction  of  working  parties  are  posted. 

The  Boyaux  are  the  trenches  or  zig-zags,  run 
forward  from  the  j^arallels.  They  are  given  such 
direction  that  they  can  not  be  enfiladed  from  any 
part  of  the  besieged  work. 

(12G) 


NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  127 

In  running  the  parallels  the  "  simple  trench  "  can 
usually  be  employed,  but  for  the  boyaux,the  "  fly- 
ing sap,"  the  "full  sap,"  or  the  "double  sap  "  will 
have  to  be  resorted  to,  depending  on  the  direction 
and  severity  of  the  enemy's  fire. 

In  Plate  XI,  Figs.  1  and  2  represent  in  profile 
the  simple  trench  ;  Fig.  3  a  flying  sap ;  Fig.  4  a 
longitudinal,  and  Fig.  5  a  cross-section  of  a  full  sap. 

In  the  simple  trench,  cover  is  obtained  by  excavat- 
ing to  the  required  depth  and  throwing  the  earth 
toward  the  side  of  the  enemy.  In  tlie  flying  sap 
each  man,  to  obtain  speedy  cover,  is  provided  with 
two  gabions,  which  he  plants  side  by  side,  and  fills 
with  earth  as  quickly  as  possible.  In  the  full  sap  it 
is  necessary  to  provide  for  protection  ahead  as  well 
as  on  the  side,  and  for  this  purpose  a  heavy  sap- 
roller  is  provided.  This  is  a  large  wicker-work  or 
sheet-iron  gal3ion  stufted  with  fascines  (shown  in 
Figs.  4  and  ">).  Tiiis  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
sap  and  rolled  ahead  a  few  inches  at  a  time,  the 
space  being  filled  in  with  earth  at  once.  The 
double  sap  provides  for  protection  on  both  sides  and 
in  front.  Two  sap-rollers  are  used,  placed  end  to 
end,  and  the  excavated  earth  thrown  in  both  direc- 
tions. 

While  the  boyaux  are  being  pushed  forward,  and 
particularly  after  the  construction  of  the  second 
parallel,  the  batteries  are  constructed — Breaching 
batteries,  to  batter  down  tlie  wall  and  make  a  practi- 


128  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

cable  breach ;  Enfilading  batteries  to  enfilade  and 
dismount  the  guns  along  the  faces  of  the  work. 

In  this  way  the  besiegers  gradually  work  their 
way  forward  up  to  the  covered-way  in  front  of  the 
ditch.  From  this  point  an  assault  may  be  made,  or 
the  approaches  continued  down  to  and  across  the 
ditch  up  to  the  wall  of  the  main  work,  which,  in  the 
meantime,  is  supposed  to  have  been  breached  by 
the  besiegers'  batteries. 

The  Second  Period  embraces  all  work  from  the 
opening  of  the  first  to  the  completion  of  the  last 
parallel,  and  the  Third  Period  the  assault  and  ail 
sul)sequent  operations. 

Mining  and  countermining  are  frequently  resorted 
to,  and  desperate  encounters  often  take  place  in 
these  underground  operations. 

In  the  days  of  smooth-bore  guns  the  first  parallel 
was  usually  opened  about  600  yards  from  the  be- 
sieged work,  and  three  parallels  were  usually  suffi- 
cient to  carry  the  attack  forward  to  within  assault- 
ing distance;  but  under  modern  conditions  the  first 
parallel  would  probably  be  opened  many  times  this 
distance.  At  the  siege  of  Strasburg,  during  the 
Franco-Prussian  war  (1871),  the  (Jermans  o[)ened 
their  first  parallel  at  4,000  yards  from  the  French 
works.  Their  breaching  batteries  were  establishe<l, 
and  the  walls  breached,  at  a  distance  of  3,500  yards. 
The  siege  of  Fort  Pulaski,  in  1802,  proved  that 
rifled  guns  of  moderate  power  could  breach  walls  of 


NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

Plate  XIV. 


12V) 


A,A.  /"  Parallel 

BB.  Z-" 

C.C.  s--" 

O.  D    Bogau K  f 


£    SasC'on. 
r  r  Outivork(fiedan) 
6.G     [nf.lad.ng  Bat'y 
HH  Counter  Batteries 

J    Co'nmumcatior' 

•A/ it  ft'     Oeoots. 


130  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

masonry  at  the  distance  of  a  mile  or  more,  and,  in 
effect,  sounded  the  doom  of  masonry  as  a  material 
for  fortifications.  The  siege  of  Fort  Sumter,  a  year 
hiter,  confirmed  the  lesson  of  Fort  Pulaski.  Here 
the  walls  of  Sumter  were  reduced  to  a  sha})eless 
mass  of  rubbish  by  the  fire  of  the  Federal  fleet  and 
batteries,  firing  at  distances  of  from  1,200  to  4,000 
3'ards. 

The  siege  of  Fort  AVagner,  one  of  the  defenses  of 
Charleston,  in  the  same  year,  demonstrated  the  value 
of  sand  as  a  material  for  parapets.  The  approaches 
were  conducted  in  the  regular  way,  the  fort  in  the 
meantime  being  subjected  to  the  combined  fire  of 
botb  the  fleet  and  tlie  shore  batteries  at  short  range. 
Its  guns  were  dismounted,  but  the  thick  sand  para- 
pets were  found  to  be  comparatively  uninjured  when 
the  work  was  abandoned,  whicli  was  done  the  night 
after  the  besiegers  had  reached  the  crest  of  the 
covered  way  with  tbeir  apj)roaches.  It  should,  how- 
ever, be  added  that  the  great  thickness  of  parapet 
necessary  to  stop  hostile  shot,  the  impossibility  of 
using  it  in  restricted  places,  and  the  want  of  protec- 
tion it  aflfords  against  vertical  fire,  are  insujierable 
objections  against  the  employment  of  earth  or  sand 
for  the  con.struction  of  permanent  fortifications. 

The  accompanying  cut  (Plate  XIV)  will  sbow  the 
manner  in  wliich  siege  oi)erations  ai'e  generally  con- 
ducted. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
TORPEDOES  AND  SUBMARINE  MINES. 

ALL  contrivances  for  producing  explosions  calcu- 
lated to  act  destructively  against  an  enemy  are 
<;alled  mines.  They  are  used  chiefly  to  defend  rivers 
and  harbors.  When  stationary  and  so  employed, 
they  have  received  tlie  name  of  submarine  mines, 
leaving  the  term  torpedo  for  all  offensive  and  movable 
combinations  of  this  nature. 

SUBMARINE   MINES. 

Submarine  mines  are  of  two  classes — (1)  Mechan- 
ical and  (2)  Electrical.  Mechanical,  those  which  de- 
pend for  their  explosion  upon  mechanical  means,  as 
the  percussion  of  a  vessel  coming  in  contact  with 
them;  electrical,  iho^a  v^hich.  are  fired  by  electrical 
agency,  either  by  the  vessel  itself  closing  the  circuit, 
or  at  will  from  the  shore. 

The  first,  when  once  in  position,  bar  the  harbor  or 
channel  against  friend  or  foe  alike ;  the  second  are 
under  perfect  control,  and  may  be  rendered  harmless 
at  any  instant  by  simply  cutting  out  the  battery. 
The  chief  advantage  of  the  mechanical  over  the 
electrical  mine  is  that  it  is  of  simpler  construction, 

(131) 


I02  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

and  may  l)e  hamlled  and  ])lanted  by  ordinary  work- 
men, while  the  electi'ieal  mine  requires  a  certain 
amount  of  teclmical  knowledge  for  its  proper  ma- 
nipulation. 

In  planting  a  system  of  mines  for  the  defense  of  d 
channel  or  harbor,  the  individual  mines  may  be  ar- 
ranged in  groups,  or  singly,  upon  one  or  more  lines, 
and  near  enough  together  to  bring  within  the  de- 
structive area  of  one  or  more  of  them  any  vessel 
attempting  to  enter.  When  the  depth  of  water  is 
not  too  great,  they  should  rest  upon  the  bottom. 

The  case  may  be  of  w^ood  or  metal — usually  of 
thin  steel ;  must  be  water-tight,  and  in  shape  may 
be  either  spherical,  conical  or  cylindrical. 

They  are  called  buoyant  or  ground  mines,  accord- 
ing as  they  are  anchored  from,  or  rest  upon  the 
bottom.  For  depths  beyond  six  fathoms  the  buoy- 
ant mine  would  usually  be  employed. 

The  explosive  may  be  either  gunpow^der  or  some 
one  of  the  high  explosives.  The  latter  are  to  be 
preferred,  both  on  account  of  their  greater  explosive 
force,  and  the  fact  that  most  of  them  are  unaffected 
by  the  action  of  water. 

The  charge  is  fired  by  an  electrical  fuse  (except 
in  case  of  mechanical  mines).  A  current  of  any 
kind  may  be  used,  but  that  from  a  galvanic  battery 
is  to  ]>e  |)referred,  as  it  gives  a  current  of  large 
quantity  and  low  tension,  and  is  not  likely  to  ex- 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  133 

cite  induced  currents  in  tlie  wires  of  contiguous 
mines. 

The  positions  of  the  mines  of  a  system  are  care- 
fully located  by  means  of  intersection  of  lines  from 
fixed  points  on  shore.  There  must  be  no  indication 
of  their  position  above  water. 

Fig.  1,  Plate  XV  shows  one  method  of  fixing  the 
position  of  and  firing  a  system  of  mines  by  means 
of  intersection  of  lines.  Two  operations  are  neces- 
sary, at  A  and  B,  at  each  of  which  points  there  is  a 
break  in  the  circuit,  which,  however,  is  closed  as 
long  as  a  hostile  vessel  is  upon  any  one  of  the  inter- 
secting lines.  When  a  vessel  is  over  any  mine,  both 
circuits  are  consequently  closed  and  the  mine  is  fired. 
The  circuit  may  ])e  closed  automatically  by  the  tele- 
scope of  the  observer,  or  it  may  be  done  by  means 
of  a  key -board  in  front  of  him. 

Fig.  2.  The  ordinar}-  huoymd  mechanical  mine. 
An  arrangement  of  percussion  nipples,  or  caps,  serves 
to  insure  explosion  on  contact  with  a  vessel.  It 
w^ould  be  anchored  from  10  to  20  feet  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  depending,  of  course,  on  the  depth 
of  channel  and  the  size  of  craft  that  would  be  likely 
to  enter. 

Fig  3.  A  ground  mine.  Usually  a  hollow  cast- 
iron  body,  and  rests  upon  the  bottom  of  the  channel. 
It  may  be  fired  at  will,  by  an  electric  fuse,  or  may 
be  made  automatic  by  a  buoy  having  precisely  the 


134  notes  on  military  science. 

Plate  XY. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  135 

same  arrangement  for  closing  the  circuit,  on  contact, 
as  a  live  mine,  and  with  which  it  must  be,  of  course, 
electrically  connected. 

Fig.  4-  A.  spherical,  buoyant  mine.  This  form  has 
been  adopted  by  the  United  States.  The  case  is 
made  of  two  thin  hemispheres  of  steel,  the  narrow 
flanges  of  which  are  welded  together  forming  a 
water-tight  joint ;  that  for  the  100-pound  mine  is  32 
inches  in  diameter  and  \  inch  in  thickness.  It  is 
fired  by  an  electric  fuse,  and  may  be  exploded  at 
will,  from  the  shore,  or  the  contact  of  a  passing 
vessel  may  be  made  to  close  the  circuit  and  fire  the 
mine. 

A  system  of  submarine  mines  can,  at  best,  be  only 
auxiliary  to  guns  andforts.  Without  the  protection 
of  batteries,  mines  can  be  readily  removed,  killed  or 
exploded — an  operation  for  which  provision  would 
always  be  made  in  the  plans  for  an  offensive  move- 
ment against  a  harbor  or  channel.  , 

TORPEDOES. 

Torpedoes  are  of  two  classes, — Controllable  and 
Uncontrollable. 

In  the  first  class,  which  are  also  known  as  locomo- 
tive torpedoes,  the  torpedo  carries  within  itself  the 
engine  that  supplies  the  motive  power  to  propel  it, 
and  is  steered  from  the  shore  by  an  electric  cable, — 
a  float  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  giving  it  buoy- 


136  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

ancy.  The  engine  may  be  driven  by  carbonic-acid 
gas,  by  compressed  air,  or  by  electricity  sup{)lied 
from  the  shore  by  cable. 

The  range  of  this  chiss  of  torpedoes  is  limited  only 
b}'  the  length  of  cable  that  can  be  carried  and  the 
distance  at  which  the  flags  or  steering  balls  can  be 
seen.  Two  miles  seems  to  be  the  range  claimed  for 
the  best  of  them. 

They  are  cigar-shaj)ed,  varying  in  length  from 
20  to  36  feet,  and  carry  from  200  to  500  pounds  of 
dynamite  or  gun-cotton.  The  Controllable  torpedo, 
of  which  there  are  various  models,  is  essentially  an 
American  invention. 

Plate  XVI  re})resents  the  Patrick  Torpedo.  It  is 
driven  by  a  carbonic-acid-gas  engine.  Buoyancy  is 
attained  by  means  of  a  hollow  coj)per  float,  which 
maintains  the  torpedo  at  a  submersion  of  about 
three  feet.  The  torj^edo  is  36  feet  long  and  22  inches 
in  diameter.  It  has  a  range  of  one  mile.  The  float 
is  6  feet  longer  than  the  torpedo,  to  which  it  is  rig- 
idly couiiected.  Two  flags  alxive  the  float  indicate 
to  the  operator  the  position  of  the  torpedo.  It  is 
started,  stopped  and  guided  on  its  course  by  means 
of  a  two-wire  electric  cable  in  connection  with  100 
cells  bichromate  batterv.  The  wire  is  paid  out  from 
the  shore  station  as  the  torpedo  advances.  It  is 
charged  with  200  pounds  of  dynamite,  which  may 
be  fired  electrically  at  will,  or  on  contact.  (Plate 
XVll.) 


NOTES    OX    ^rILITARY    SCIENCE.  137 

Plate   XVI. 


138  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

In  the  Sims-Edison  tor[)eclo,  the  motive  power  is 
electricity,  supplied  by  a  dynamo  machine  on  shore, 
through  a  cable.  The  cable  is  coiled  in  a  compart- 
ment within  the  torpedo  and  is  paid  out  as  tiie  tor- 
pedo advances.  It  is  not  only  propelled,  but  steered 
and  fired  by  e^ectricit3^  Buoyancy  is  obtained,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Patrick  torpedo,  by  means  of  a  float. 
Two  steel  rods,  carrying  balls,  project  above  the  float 
and  indicate  its  position. 

In  the  Nordcnfelt  electrical  torpedo,  the  motive 
power  is  supplied  by  storage  cells.  The  storage 
battery  and  motor  are  within  the  torpedo,  which  is 
steered  by  a  l)alaiiced  rudder,  manipulated  from 
shore  through  a  cable.  It  has  a  length  of  35  feet, 
moves  6  feet  below  the  surface,  and  has  a  charge  of 
from  "200  to  ")00  pounds  of  explosive. 

Of  the  Uncontrollable  class,  or  fish  torpedoes,  the 
Whitehead  is  the  representative  of  European  systems, 
and  is  the  only  type  of  naval  torpedo  in  actual  use 
aln'oad.  It  is  a  ('.igar-shaped  body  of  steel  or  phos- 
phor-bronze, divided  into  compartments  for  the  pro- 
pelling, directing,  and  exploding  meclumism.  The 
motive  power  is  air,  compressed  under  a  pressure  of 
about  1000  lbs.  i)er  square  inch,  and  an  engine.  It 
has  an  extreme  range  of  about  800  yards,  and  a 
speed,  uj)  to  the  half  of  this  distance,  of  30  knots  per 
liour.  Plate  XVII,  on  page  141,  shows  its  general 
ai>pearance.     The  explosive  charge  is  carried  in  the 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  ISO" 

forward  section,  the  air  reservoir  and  machinery  in 
the  central  sections. 

The  Howell  torpedo,  the  invention  of  Captain 
Howell  of  the  Navy,  has  much  the  general  a})pear- 
ance  of  the  Whitehead,  and  is  its  principal  rival. 
Tiie  shell  is  of  hrass,  the  other  parts  of  steel  or  [)hos- 
phor-bronze.  The  propelling  power  is  stored  in  a 
steel  fly-wheel,  given  a  high  velocity  of  rotation 
before  the  torpedo  is  launched.  The  fly-wheel  is 
geared  directly  to  the  propeller  shaft.  The  degree 
of  submersion  is  controlled  by  hydrostatic  pressure. 
After  Uxunching,  it  automatically  takes  the  depth  fjr 
which  set,  which  it  maintains.  The  fly-wheel  can  be 
worked  up  to  10,000  revolutions  per  minute,  which 
will  give  a  speed  of  about  22  knots  for  400  yards,, 
and  an  extreme  range  of  about  1,000  yards.  The 
8-ft.  torpedo  will  carry  70,  and  the  9-ft.  90  lbs.  of 
explosive.  For  accuracy  it  is  superior  to  the  White- 
head, but  the  latter  has  the  greater  speed  and  effect- 
ive range. 

The  torpedo-boats  designed  for  carrying  fish-tor- 
jiedos  are  of  special  construction,  and  are  remarkable 
for  their  phenomenal  speed.  The  best  of  them  have 
attained  a  speed  of  nearly  30  miles  per  hour.  The 
torpedoes  are  discharged  by  gunpowder  or  com- 
pressed-air impulse,  througli  tubes  in  the  bow  or 
upon  the  sides,  either  above  or  below  the  water-line. 
The  propelling  machinery  comes  into  play  as  soon. 


140  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

as  the  torpedo  strikes  the  water.  Torpedoes  and 
torpedo-tubes  form  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  most 
of  the  recently  constructed  war-ships. 

The  best  example  of  a  ijurely  j^'^'ojectile  torpedo  is 
that  invented  b}'  the  late  Captain  Ericsson,  intended 
to  be  fired  from  a  breech-loading  gun  or  tube,  built 
into  a  vessel  especially  designed  for  the  purpose 
{the  "  Desti'oyer'').  The  gun  is  submerged  some  7 
feet,  closed  by  two  water-tight  valves,  one  of  which, 
of  wood,  is  sujDposed  to  be  shot  away  and  replaced 
after  each  discharge.  A  gunpowder  charge  of  25 
lbs.  gives  a  range  of  some  400  ft.  to  a  torpedo  car- 
rying 300  lbs.  of  explosive.     (Plate  XVIII.) 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 


141 


Plate  XVII. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

GRAND  GUARDS,  SENTINELS  AND  OUTPOSTS. 

''T^HE  safety  of  an  army  engaged  in  active  military 
J_  operations  depends  largely  upon  tlie  alertness 
and  fidelity  with  which  its  guard  duty  is  performed. 
The  guards  may  be  said  to  be  tlie  eyes  and  ears  of 
the  main  body. 

At  all  times,  in  peace  as  well  as  in  war,  every  mili- 
tary post,  camp  or  station  has  a  regularly  mounted 
guard.  That  for  the  protection  of  stores  and  build- 
ings, and  to  control  the  ingress  and  egress  of  indi- 
viduals, is  termed  the  Camp  Guard.  It  is  never 
omitted  in  any  weather  or  under  any  circumstances. 

In  time  ot  war,  in  presence  of  an  enemy,  there 
are,  in' addition  to  the  camp  guard,  other  jn'ecau- 
tions  taken  to  observe  the  enemy  and  prevent  a  sur- 
})rise.  This  is  done  by  an  advanced  guard,  consist- 
ing of  two  or  more  concentric  lines,  spread  out  in 
fan-shaped  order  in  front  of  the  main  body  of  the 
army,  and  so  posted  that  no  person  can  penetrate 
the  line  without  being  discovered. 

The  duties  of  the  advanced  guards,  or  outposts  as 
they  are  termed  in  foreign  services,  are  the  same  in 
i\\\  armies,  viz.  : 

(142) 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  143 

1.  To  secure  time  for  the  main  bod}^  to  get  under 
arms  and  ready  to  receive  the  enemy. 

2.  To  obtain  all  {)0.?sible  information  respecting 
the  enemy. 

3.  To  prevent  the  passage  of  nnauthorized  persons 
across  the  outpost  line. 

4.  To  secure  undisturbed  repose  for  the  main  body. 

The  troops  employed  upon  this  duty  vary  in  dif- 
ferent services.  From  one-fourth  to  one-eighth  rep- 
resents the  average  proportion.  They  are  spread 
out  on  four  lines,  u.sually — (1)  grand  guards,  (2)  out- 
posts, (3)  sentinels,  and  (4)  videttes. 

Grand  Guards  are  usually  made  up  of  details  fur- 
nished by  the  different  regiments  of  the  division 
whose  front  they  cover.  They  are  posted  upon  or 
near  the  roads  or  avenues  of  approach  leading  from 
the  exterior  line  of  outposts  to  the  main  body.  They 
supply  the  men  for,  and  act  as  support  to  the  out- 
posts. 

Outposts.  Outside  the  grand  guard,  and  occupy- 
ing a  much  more  extended  front,  are  the  outposts. 
These  consi.st  of  a  line  of  small  posts,  each  under 
command  of  a  non-commissioned  officer,  posted 
within  sight  of  each  other,  and,  when  practicable, 
within  view  of  the  post  of  the  grand  guard.  They 
should  be  concealed  as  much  as  possible  from  view 
of  the  enemy.  A  number  of  posts  are  placed  under 
the  supervision  of  an  officer. 


144  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

Sentinels.  Outside  the  line  of  outposts  are  the  in- 
dividual sentinels,  who  should  be  able  to  see  and 
communicate  with  those  on  either  side.  At  impor- 
tant points,  or  wlien  an  attack  is  apprehended,  the 
sentinels  are  usually  doubled.  Upon  roads  or  ad- 
vantageous points  for  observation  beyond  the  chain 
of  sentinels  ;  single  individuals  are  sent  forward  to 
watch  the  enemy.     They  are  called  videttes. 

Patrols.  To  keep  up  communication  between  the 
line  of  outposts,  the  outposts  and  sentinels,  and  the 
grand  guards,  patrols  are  employed,  who,  passing 
constantly  between  the  different  parts  of  the  lines, 
keep  each  informed  of  the  state  of  affairs  of  the 
whole  line. 

For  obtaining  information  of  the  enemy,  reliance 
must  be  had  upon  cavalry  patrols,  who  often  go  out 
far  in  advance  of  the  infantry  outposts.  As  has 
been  said,  "  Cavahy  can  hardly  go  too  fixr  or  too 
often." 

Often  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  fourth  line,  or  line 
of  reserves,  between  the  grand  guard  and  the  main 
bod}^  to  act  as  support.  Tliese  reserves  may  con- 
sist of  artillery  as  well  as  infantry,  and  always  there 
will  be  mounted  men  attached  to  the  grand  guards 
and  reserves,  to  convey  intelligence  quickly  to  the 
main  body. 

The  strength  of  the  grand  guards  and  their  dis- 
tance from  the  main  line  will  dej)end  upon  t]\o  im- 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  145 

portance  of  the  position,  the  facilities  for  defense 
which  the  ground  offers,  and  the  strength  and  en- 
terprise of  the  enemy.  The  grand  guards  will  usu- 
ally be  from  one  to  two  miles  from  the  main  line. 

The  sentinels  and  outposts  are  never  allowed  to 
sleep,  nor  more  than  half  the  members  of  the  grand 
guards  at  one  time,  and  never  when  an  attack  is 
apprehended.  The  sentinels  are  relieved  at  stated 
intervals  from  the  grand-guard  posts.  The  horses  of 
mounted  men  are  always  kept  Sciddled  and  bridled. 

In  case  of  attack,  the  sentinels  fall  back  upon  the 
outposts,  they  in  turn  upon  the  grand  guards,  who, 
after  offering  as  stubborn  a  resistance  as  possible, 
Avould  fall  back  upon  the  reserves,  if  there  be  any  ; 
the  duty  of  the  whole  being  to  hold  the  enemy  in 
check  long  enough  to  enable  the  main  body  to 
prepare  to  receive  the  attack.  The  whole  force  of 
the  advanced  guard  will,  if  driven  in,  enter  the 
main  line  at  certain  designated  and  well-understood 
points. 

To  protect  an  army  on  the  march  from  surprise  or 
ambuscade  is  more  difficult  than  to  guard  one  in 
position.  Not  only  the  front,  but  the  flanks  and 
the  rear,  must  be  guarded.  For  this  purpose  we 
have  an  advanced  guard,  flankers  and  rear  guard. 

The  advanced  guard  should  consist  of  troops  of 
all  arms,  and  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  receive  the 
enemy  and  hold  him  in  check  until  the  main  body 


146  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

can  come  up.  It  must  carefully  examine  every  spot 
of  territory  in  front,  drive  off  small  bodies  of  tlie 
enemy,  and  make  a  surprise  of  the  maiu  body  im- 
possible. 

The  flanhcrs  march  aloug  each  iiank  of  tlie  col- 
umn and  guard  it  from  surprise  in  that  direction. 
In  an  open  country  tliey  would  usually  be  of  cavalry. 

The  rear  guard  finds  its  true  functions  during  a 
retreat.  It  must  dispute  every  inch  of  ground,  and; 
whenever  the  ground  offers  opportunity,  halt  and 
fight  long  enough  to  compel  the  pursuing  force  to 
deploy,  when  the  retreat  may  be  resumed. 

The  accompanying  cut  (Plate  XIX)  will  show  the 
general  methods  of  performing  outpost  duty  in 
European  armies. 

The  Austrian  system  is  essentially  one  of  resist- 
ance. The  havpt  posts  are  posted  where  a  vigorous 
resistance  is  possible,  and  iiere  every  possible  means 
of  defense  must  he  exhausted  Ijefore  retreat  is  allowed, 
and  sometimes  a  sacrifice  of  the  whole  force  is  nec- 
essary. 

In  the  French  system  the  grand  guard  wouhl  usu- 
ally be  one  company;  the  petit  posts  one-half  the 
strength  of  the  grand  guard.  The  petit  posts  post 
double  sentinels,  and  also  eini»loy  a  fourth  of  their 
numl)er  upon  jmtrol  iluty.  Like  the  Austrian,  the 
French  system  looks  i'or  stubborn  resistance  by  the 
outposts. 


Plate  XIX. 
Outpost  Service. 


[Page  147.] 


ALfSTRIAN. 


^">' 


)    hauptpost  i 
(grand  guard) 


^^• 


— t 


RESERVE  ^ '^ 


FRENChi. 


•l         ' 


PETIT 
POST 


GRAND   GARDE 


9-JOo    I     ^ 


-| 


CORPS 
PRINCIPAL 


GERMAN- 


DOUBLE  SENTRIES. 
II 

I 
^^^H  FELDWACH. 


GROS. 
IfRESERVE) 


ITALIAN. 


P^cCOU. 


GRAN    GARDIEI 


Posr, 


1 


MAIN    BODY 


148  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

The  Italian  system  is  one  of  observation  and  re- 
sistance combined,  and  both  are  equally  relied  upon. 
The  jnccoli  posti  consists  of  three  or  four  men  and  a 
commander.  The  grand  guard  forms  the  line  of  re- 
sistance. 

In  the  German  system  the  feldwach  number  30  to 
40  men  each.  These  send  out  double  sentries  to  the 
front,  leaving  one-third  of  their  strength  for  patrol- 
ling. The  position  of  the  sentries  and  supports,  as 
well  as  the  details  of  the  service,  are  left  largely  to 
the  commander  of  the  outposts.  The  posting  of 
an  intermediate  body  {piket),  between  the  feldwach 
and  the  gros,  is  left  to  his  discretion. 

The  Russian  system  of  outposts  is  one  of  observa- 
tion, that  of  the  Swiss  and  Dutch  one  of  resistance. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

MILITARY  RECONNAISSANCE. 

MILITARY  reconnaissance  is  the  process  of  ob- 
taining information  (1)  concerning  the  enemy, 
and  (2)  of  the  ground  with  a  view  of  conducting 
military  operations. 

Reconnaissance  of  the  enemy  may  be  conducted 
■either  secretly  or  in  force.  If  the  former,  an  officer, 
either  alone  or  with  a  small  escort,  approaches  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  enemy's  lines,  and  from  a 
concealed  position  learns  what  he  can  of  his  posi- 
tion, strength  and  intentions.  In  a  reconnaissance 
in  force,  a  considerable  body  marches  oj)enh'  to- 
wards the  enemy,  drives  in  his  outposts  and  com- 
pels him  to  disclose  his  line  of  battle.  This  latter 
would  be  under  charge  of  a  general  officer,  the 
former  by  a  staff  officer  or  an  officer  of  experience. 

The  duty  of  reconnoitering  a  country  is  one  that 
ma}^  fall  to  an  officer  of  any  rank  and  of  any  arm 
of  the  service,  and  his  efficiency  will  depend  upon 
his  ability  to  appreciate  and  report  upon  its  topo- 
graphical features,  its  roads,  resources,  obstacles,  etc. 

To  do  this  to  the  best  advantage  an  officer  should 
(149) 


150  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

be  able  to  sketch  ground,  even  if  but  roughly;  to 
judge  distances  by  the  eye,  and  to  pace  them  cor- 
rectly if  on  foot,  or  by  the  pace  of  his  horse  if 
mounted  ;  to  estimate  approximately  the  height  of 
hills  and  the  slope  and  gradient  of  roads.  The  in- 
formation obtained  is  usually  required  at  once,  and 
hence  the  work  must  be  done  quickly.  A  note- 
book, a  compass,  a  field-glass,  and  a  piece  of  stout 
cord  knotted  in  yard  divisions,  are  all  the  imple- 
ments required. 

Reconnoitering  duties  likely  to  fall  to  the  lot  of 
regimental  officers  would  usually  be  those  of  recon- 
naissance of  a  Road,  a  River,  a  Wood,  a  Railway,  a 
Village,  a  Mountain,  or  a  District. 

Of  a  Road,  would  usually  be  made  on  horseback, 
and  slowly  enough  to  enal^le  the  officer  to  take  in 
all  the  necessary  details  of  the  road  and  adjacent 
land,  and  to  make  a  sketch  of  both.  Between  tlie 
sketch  and  the  report  the  thing  to  be  shown  are: 
The  general  direction  and  character  of  the  road,  its 
width,  its  condition,  the  soil,  sand  or  clay  ;  if  fenced, 
with  what  material;  if  bad,  if  a  detour  is  practica- 
ble, or  material  at  hand  for  repairs.  All  gradients 
above  5°  should  be  given.  Slopes  greater  than  8° 
are  con.sidered  impas.sable  for  lieavy  baggage  wagons 
without  doubling  up  the  teams.  Artillery  carriages 
can  ascend  slopes  of  1G°  or  17°.  Full  details  of 
bridges,  their  length,  breadth  and  material  should 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  151 

be  given,  and  whether  passable  for  all  arms.  A 
bridge  strong  enough  for  infantry  in  column  of  fours 
will  bear  guns  singly  or  cavalry  in  file.  Streams, 
roads,  woods,  and  defiles  which  it  crosses  or  through 
which  it  passes  are  noted  with  all  necessary  particu- 
lars, together  with  suitable  places  for  camps  and 
halting  places. 

0/  a  River,  would  show  its  general  direction,  its 
width,  average  depth  and  strength  of  current,  the 
character  of  its  banks,  whether  crossed  by  bridges, 
fords  or  ferries,  with  all  necessary  particulars  of 
each  ;  the  best  places  for  throwing  bridges  in  the 
absence  of  other  existing  means  for  crossing,  and 
any  suitable  positions  for  artillery  on  either  bank. 
The  surface  velocity  of  a  stream  may  be  determined 
by  throwing  a  piece  ot  heavy  wood  into  the  middle 
of  the  current,  and  noting  the  time  required  to  pass 
between  two  points,  as  a  hundred  yards. 

Of  a  Wood,  would  show  the  extent,  nature  of  the 
ground,  the  roads,  streams,  ravines  that  cross  it,  and 
whether  all  arms'can  pass  freely  through  it  or  must 
keep  to  the  roads.  The  practicability  of  getting 
through  a  wood  depends  greatly  upon  the  closeness 
of  the  trees  to  each  other,  the  average  height  of  the 
limbs  and  the  character  of  the  undergrowth. 

Of  a  Railway,  would  show  its  general  direction,  its 
gauge  ;  whether  single  or  double  track  ;  the  number 
and  character  of  the  stations,  and  what  platforms 


152  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

they  possess  :  tunnels,  cuts,  embankments,  crossings, 
and  bridges,  and  whether  these  can  be  defended; 
j)artictilars  concerning  the  rolling  stock  and  tele- 
graph lines,  and  the  best  points  and  surest  way  of 
interrupting  traffic  temporarily,  or  of  permanently 
destroying  the  line. 

Of  a  Village,  would  show  the  nature  of  its  site,  the 
character  of  the  houses,  and  the  material  of  which 
built,  and  whether  surrounded  with  hedges,  fences 
or  walls,  and  high  or  low  ;  what  Ituildings  would 
be  suitable  for  hospitals ;  material  used  in  roofing; 
the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  water  supply,  and 
whether  it  could  be  cut  off  by  an  enemy. 

OJ  a  Mountain,  would  show  the  extent  of  the 
range,  and  its  general  character  and  steepness  ;  the 
]»asses,  roads  and  trails  over  it ;  what  roads  or  passes 
are  practicable  for  carriages,  for  i»ack  animals,  and 
for  footmen  only  ;  whether  streams  are  liable  to  sud- 
den rise,  and  all  details  as  to  springs  and  water 
supply. 

Of  a  District,  would  deal  with  the  general  features 
of  the  country;  its  roads,  railways,  woods  and  de- 
files; cannls  and  rivers,  with  means  for  crossing; 
towns,  villages  and  farm-houses;  the  produce  and 
supplies;  the  kind  of  animals  employed,  and  the 
vehicles  in  common  use  by  the  inhabitants. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
MILITARY  TRANSPORT  AND  SUPPLY. 

THE  efficiency  of  an  army  in  the  field  is  largely 
dependent  upon  the  character  of  its  transport : 
that  is,  upon  the  certainty  and  regularity  with  which 
its  food,  a  iimunition,  supplies  of  all  kinds,  are  de- 
livered ;  its  baggage  ke])t  at  hand,  and  its  sick  and 
wounded  provided  for. 

Military  transport  is  usually  of  three  kinds,  as  (1) 
water  transport,  by  rivers,  canals,  etc.;  (2)  railway 
transport,  and  (3)  by  wheel  vehicles,  j^ack  animals, 
and  human  carriers.  The  first  has  the  disadvantage 
of  being  easily  interrupted — a  brief  possession  of  a 
stream  or  canal  being  sufficient  to  enable  an  enemy, 
by  sinking  boats,  cutting  banks,  etc.,  to  render  navi- 
gation for  a  time  impossible.  Railway  transport  is 
that  which  armies,  operating  in  civilized  countries, 
will  usually  depend  upon,  and  is  one  that  can  be 
easily  repaired  when  broken.  AVhether  in  other 
cases,  wheeled  vehicles,  pack  animals,  or  human  car- 
riers will  be  employed,  will  depend  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  roads,  and  the  means  of  communication 
common  to  the  country. 

Of  railway  and  water  transport  little  need  be  said, 
the  ordinary  rolling-stock  of  the  one  and  tonnage  of 

(153) 


154  NOTES    OX    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

the  other  heiiio,-  taken  for  military  piirj)Oses,  and 
phiced  under  military  control.  In  campaigns  in  un- 
civilized countries,  unusual  means  of  transport  must 
often  be  utilized.  For  pack  animals,  besides  the 
horse  and  mule,  camels,  elephants,  and  l)ullocks  have 
often  been  employed. 

In  the  Abyssinian  campaign  elephants  were  largely 
employed  by  the  English,  and  were  found  very  useful, 
especially  in  the  transport  of  artillery.  They  were 
also  used  in  Afghanistan.  Camels  were  also  used  in 
Abyssinia,  and  formed  the  chief  means  of  transport 
in  the  Afghan  wars.  The  load  of  an  elephant  is  from 
15  cwt.  to  one  ton  ;  that  of  a  camel  from  450  to  500 
lbs.  In  New  Zealand,  against  the  Maoris,  bullocks 
were  mostly  used  by  the  English  troops.  A  light 
cart,  capable  of  carrying  half  a  ton,  was  drawn  by 
two  or  four  animals,  and  did  good  service. 

The  English  have  also  made  large  use  of  human 
carriers  for  the  purposes  of  military  transport.  In 
China  and  in  India  carriers  have  been  employed, 
wliilst  in  the  Ashantee  campaign  they  had  to  be 
relied  upon  almost  entirely  for  transport  purposes. 
Besides  his  own  kit  of  22  lbs.,  each  man  in  thiscam- 
[)aign  was  expected  to  carrv  40  lbs.,  bringing  his 
load  up  to  02  lbs.  The  English  have  not  ibund 
human  carriers  reliable.  "  Four-footed  animals  may 
stray  away  or  break  down,  Ijut  will  not  sysiematieally 
plan  to  desert  to  avoid  distasteful  labor." 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  155- 

Experience  has  proved  that  to  be  efficient,  military 
transport  must  have  mihtary  organization.  In  the 
English  service  the  mihtary  transport  is  divided  into 
three  parts — regimental,  which  includes  that  placed 
wholly  under  the  control  of  the  battalion  commander 
or  other  tactical  unit,  for  the  supply  of  its  wants ; 
departmental,  which  embraces  all  transport  other 
than  regimental  that  accompanies  an  army  in  the 
field,  and  marches,  camps,  and  works  with  it;  and 
general  transport,  which  supplies  the  connecting  link 
between  an  army  and  its  base. 

In  the  German  service  the  work  of  providing  for 
the  wants  of  an  army  is  divided  into  three  branches — 
Intendance,  Transport,  and  Supply.  Intendance, 
which  is  largely  non-militar}'  in  its  organization,, 
has  control  of  the  finances,  provides  for  the  supply 
of  clothing,  provisions,  train  material,  and  stores 
in  general,  and  the  auditing  of  accounts.  In  the 
field  it  has  charge  of  all  the  arrangements  for  procur- 
ing, storing,  and  distributing  food  and  forage,  and  tlie 
formation  of  transport  trains  and  provision  depots. 

The  Transport  service  has  a  strictly  military  organi- 
zation ;  the  personnel  is  organized  in  transport  battal- 
ions, and  is  assigned  to  different  corps,  but  is  non- 
combatant.  The  Supplg  branch  embraces  everything 
connected  with  the  actual  collecting,  storing,  forward- 
ing, and  distribution  of  provisions,  under  its  own 
officials,  and  is  closely  allied  with  the  Intendance. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
TROOPS  IN  CAMPAIGN. 

THE  general  efficiency  of  a  military  force  depends 
very  largely  upon  the  care  exercised  in  prepar- 
ing the  individual  soldier  for  the  field.  For  this  the 
captains  of  companies  are  almost  wholly  responsi- 
ble, and  it  is  proposed  to  state  briefly  the  direction 
in  which  this  cave  should  be  exercised. 

The  company,  as  the  part  of  a  larger  force,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  received  orders  to  prepare  for  a  march. 
First,  and  most  important  of  all,  the  captain  must 
see  that  each  individual  is  provided  with  the  speci- 
fied number  of  rations  required  to  be  carried  on  the 
person,  and  that  they  are  actually  in  his  haversack, — 
the  meat  portion  cooked;  that  he  has  the  required 
number  of  rounds  of  ammunition  in  his  cartridge- 
box  or  elsewhere  upon  his  person,  and  that  his  arms 
are  in  good  order.  Next,  and  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance, is  the  matter  of  the  knapsack.  Ordina- 
rily each  soldier  is  supposed  to  carry  in  or  upon  his 
knapsack  a  change  of  underclothing,  an  extra  ])air  of 
shoes,  towel  and  soap,  besides  an  overcoat,  a  woolen 
and  a  rubber  blanket.  In  this  connection  the  ca))- 
tain  must  see  that  only  the  authorized  articles  are 
\l5G) 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  157 

present,  and  throw  out,  without  compunction,  every 
unauthorized  article,  however  small,  that  he  may 
find  upon  inspection.  The  proneness  of  soldiers  to 
overload  themselves,  and  the  influence  of  each  ounce 
added  to  their  loads  upon  their  marching  power^ 
makes  this  caution  necessary. 

Sometimes,  for  forced  marches,  the  extra  clothing 
is  carried  in  what  is  called  the  "  blanket-roll."  The 
articles  to  be  carried  are  placed  inside  the  blanket, 
which  is  then  rolled  up  lengthwise,  the  ends  tied  to- 
gether, and  the  roll  slung  over  the  right  shoulder. 

If  nothing  else  can  be  carried,  an  extra  pair  of 
shoes  and  stockings  should  be.  To  be  able  to  march 
well  the  feet  require  constant  attention.  In  the  Rus- 
sian service  the  men,  in  place  of  stockings,  are  pro- 
vided with  a  long  strip  of  woolen  cloth  which  is 
wound  about  the  feet,  and  can  be  easily  removed 
and  washed.  Recent  experiments  have  been  made 
in  Germany  of  dispensing  with  stockings,  and  in- 
stead, requiring  the  feet  to  be  kept  thoroughly 
greased. 

Tentage.  In  our  own  service,  on  ordinary 
marches,  tents  are  provided — the  common,  or  "A" 
tent,  for  the  men,  and  wall  tents  for  officers,  which 
are  carried  on  wagons.  In  the  field  the  shelter  tent 
alone  is  allowed.  This  is  simply  a  piece  of  thick 
cotton  cloth  carried  by  each  soldier,  with  buttons 
and  eyelets  along  the  edges,  and  by  joining  two 


158  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

or  more  jneces,  })art;iRl  protection  against  the 
M'eatlier  is  obtained.  In  nearly  all  Earo[)ean  ser- 
vices, where  campaigning  is  in  a  thickl\'-settled 
country  and  towns  numerous,  the  soldiers  are  bil- 
leted upon  the  inhabitants,  and  no  })rovision  is 
made   for  tentage. 

Marches.  Ordinarily,  the  day's  march  should 
begin  as  soon  after  daybreak  as  possible,  and  imme- 
diately after  the  men  have  had  their  breakfast.  At 
the  end  of  half  an  liour,  a  halt  of  fifteen  minutes 
should  be  given,  to  allow  attention  to  the  calls  of 
nature  and  a  readjustment  of  the  knapsack,  etc. 
Thereafter  a  few  minutes'  lialt  every  hour  should  be 
given.  If  an  early  canif)  is  to  be  made,  the  midday 
halt  will  bf  a  short  one  and  no  fires  kindled.  Other- 
wise, if  wood  and  water  can  be  obtained,  fires  will  be 
built  and  coffee  cooked.  The  day's  march  should 
end  in  time  to  allow  the  men  to  get  comfortably 
established  in  camp  before  dark. 

In  selecting  a  spot  for  a  camp,  wood  and  water  are 
the  first  requisites;  next,  a  spot  that  will  not  be 
flooded  in  case  of  a  storm,  and  one  that  admits  of 
good  drainage.  If  a  stream  is  to  be  crossed  it  should 
be  done  before  the  halt,  and  camp  made  upon  the 
farther  bank. 

In  the  arrangement  of  marches,  the  different  regi- 
ments of  a  brigade  usually  alternate  in  leading  the 
day's  march. 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  150 

The  ground  that  can  be  covered  in  a  day's  march 
depends  largely  upon  the  systematic  arrangement  of 
the  details.  Two-and-a-half  to  three  miles  per  hour 
is  a  good  marching  gait,  and  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  miles  per  day  an  ordinary  da^^'s  march.  In 
forced  marches  a  much  greater  distance  can  be 
covered.  In  July,  1810,  Crawford  marched  his 
division  62  English  miles  in  26  liours,  in  very  hot 
weather,  and  joined  Wellington  in  time  to  fight  at 
Talavera.  The  march  of  Marlborough's  troops  from 
the  Rhine  to  the  Danube,  before  Blenheim,  and  that 
of  one  of  Davoust's  divisions,  from  Vienna  to  the 
field  of  Austerlitz — 36  leagues  in  48  hours — and  the 
wonderful  marching  feats  of  Stonewall  Jackson's 
^'foot-cavalry,"  in  Virginia,  show  what  men  can  do 
under  stress  of  urgent  necessity. 

During  a  march  no  one  is  allowed  to  leave  the 
column  except  by  permission  of  his  immediate  com- 
mander. When  soldiers  leave  the  ranks,  the  arms 
and  knapsack  should  be  left  with  their  comrades. 
In  case  of  sickness  and  inability  to  march,  the  cap- 
tain gives  the  man  a  note  to  the  medical  officer  in 
charge  of  the  ambulance.  iStraggling  can  only  be 
prevented  by  the  utmost  care  on  the  part  of  the 
compau}^  officers. 


CHAPTER   XX. 
MILITARY  LAW  AND  COURTS-MARTIAL 

MILITARY  law  is  for  the  government  of  the  mili- 
tary forces  both  in  time  of  peace  and  in  war. 

Art.  I,  Sec.  8,  of  the  Constitution,  says :  "  Con- 
gress shall  have  power  to  make  rules  for  the  govern- 
ment and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval  forces." 

The  Regulations  thus  prescribed  form  the  statute 
law  of  the  army.  This  law,  so  far  as  relates  to  dis- 
cipline, is  embodied  in  what  are  called  the  Articles 
of  War, — 128  in  number. 

These  articles  were  originally  largely  cuj)ied  from 
the  English  Military  Code,  or  Mutiny  Act.  They 
provide  for  the  punishment  of  every  infraction  of 
the  military  law,  and  either  prescribe  the  punish- 
ment or  leave  it  discretionary  with  the  court. 

The  Articles  of  War  are  enforced  through  the 
medium  of  a  military  court,  called  a  Court-Martial. 
Courts-Martial  are  no  part  of  the  Judiciar}'^  of  the 
United  States,  but  simply  instrumentalities  of  execu- 
tive power.  They  are  creatures  of  orders ;  the  power 
to  convene  them,  as  the  power  to  act  upon  their  pro- 
ceedings, being  attributes  of  command.  Their  judg- 
ments, when  rendered  upon  subjects  within  their 
jurisdiction,  are  as  legal  and  valid  as  those  of  any 

(100) 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  161 

other  tribunal.  Nor  are  the  same  subject  to  be  ap- 
pealed from,  reviewed  or  set  aside  by  the  courts  of 
the  United  States,  or  of  any  State.  They  are  tri- 
bunals of  exceptional  and  restricted  power  and  juris- 
diction,— being  confined  to  distinctive  classes  of  of- 
fenses recognized  by  the  military  code.  Their  ju- 
risdiction is  criminal,  their  function  being  to  assign 
punishment.  They  have  no  authority  to  adjudge 
damages  for  personal  injuries  or  private  wrongs. 

A  General  Court-Martial  may  consist  of  from  5  to 
13  members  and  a  Judge  Advocate.  It  is  convened 
either  by  the  President,  by  a  General  officer  Qorama.nd- 
ing  the  army  of  the  United  States,  a  separate  army, 
or  a  separate  department. 

The  Judge  Advocate  appears  as  the  representative 
of  the  government,  and  acts  as  the  legal  adviser  of 
the  Court.  He  records  the  proceedings,  and,  with  the 
President,  authenticates  the  completed  record,  but 
he  has  no  voice  in  either  the  finding  or  sentence. 
The  senior  member  present  is  the  President  of  the 
Court. 

The  General  Court-Martial  has  jurisdiction,  as  to 
person,  over  every  member  of  the  military  forces, 
and,  in  time  of  war,  over  all  "  retainers  ®f  the  camp," 
which  includes  employes  of  the  staff  departments, 
telegraph  operators,  guides,  and  engineers  and  con- 
ductors on  railroads  operated  for  military  purposes 
in  the  theatre  of  war. 


162  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

Its  jurisdiction  as  io  place  is  co-exteusive  with  the 
territory  of  the  United  States,  and  extends  as  well 
over  all  offenses  of  a  military  character  committed 
in  a  foreigii  country,  when  the  offender  is  in  such 
country  in  a  military  capacity  and  under  military 
orders. 

The  commander  convening  a  Court-Martial  re- 
views and  acts  upon  the  proceedings.  He  may 
either  approve  or  disapprove  the  proceedings  and 
findings  of  the  court,  and  may  approve,  mitigate,  or 
disapprove  the  sentence  awarded  ;  and,  except  in 
certain  specified  cases,  his  action  is  final.  These 
exceptions  are  that  in  time  of  peace  sentences  involv- 
ing the  dismissal  of  officers,  or  the  death  penalty, 
and  in  all  cases  those  concerning  General  officers, 
must  go  to  the  President,  whose  action  is  the  final 
one. 

The  indictment  before  a  military  court  is  termed 
the  Charge  and  Specification.  The  Charge  sets  forth 
the  Article  of  War  under  which  the  offense  falls ; 
the  Specification,  one  or  more,  the  particulars  as  re- 
gards details,  and  as  to  time  and  place.  It  may  be 
formulated  and  signed  by  any  commissioned  officer, 
or  by  a  staff  officer,  by  order  of  his  chief.  It  is 
forwarded  through  the  regular  military  channels  to 
the  officer  competent  to  convene  a  court,  who  may 
order  a  court  or  otherwise,  as  he  may  see  fit. 

The   punishments   that   may   be   imposed   by  a 


NOTKS    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE.  163 

Court-Martial  are  in  part  mandatory  and  in  part 
discretionary.  Of  the  mandatory  punishments,  ten 
of  the  Articles  cover  offenses  for  wliich  officers  must 
be  sentenced  to  dismissah  Tiiese  are,  (1)  mustering 
a  person  not  a  soldier,  (2)  taking  money  on  muster, 
(3)  making  a  false  return,  (4)  making  a  false  certi- 
ficate as  to  absence  or  pay,  (5)  making  a  false  mus- 
ter, (6)  suffering  military  stores  to  be  damaged 
through  neglect,  (7)  as  commanding  officer  to  be 
interested  in  the  sale  of  supplies,  (8)  sending  a 
challenge  to  fight  a  duel,  (9)  drunkenness  on  duty, 
(10)  conduct  unbecoming  an  officer  and  a  gentle- 
man. 

Offenses  for  which  the  death  penalty  may  attach 
are  thirteen  in  number.  They  are  (1)  striking  a 
superior  officer,  (2)  mutiny,  (3)  failing  to  resist 
mutiny,  (4)  sleeping  on  post,  (5)  creating  false 
alarms,  (6)  cowardice,  (7)  compelling  a  surrender, 
(8)  disclosing  a  watchword,  (9)  relieving  an  enemy, 
(10)  corresi)onding  with  an  enemy,  (11)  aiding  or 
advising  to  desert,  (12)  violence  to  persons  bringing 
provisions,  (13)  desertion  in  time  of  war.  In  addi- 
tion, there  are  two  crimes  for  which  the  death  pen- 
alty must  be  awarded  by  a  Court-Martial — forcing  a 
safeguard,  and  as  against  spies. 

Persons  in  the  military  service  convicted  of  what 
may  be  called  civil  oftenses,  such  as  theft,  burglary, 
arson,  etc.,  may  be  sentenced  to  confinement  in   a 


164  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

penitentiary  or  state  prison,  but  only  when  the 
offense  is  such  as  by  some  statute  of  the  United 
States,  or  of  the  State  or  Territory  where  committed, 
or  by  common  law,  would  subject  the  convict  to 
such  punishment. 

Under  Act  of  Congress  there  has  recently  been 
promulgated  a  scale  fixing  the  maximum  punish- 
ment that  may  be  inflicted  upon  a  soldier  for  violat- 
ing any  of  the  Articles  of  War,  and  providing  for  a 
certain  increase  in  case  of  repeated  offenses. 

In  the  finding  and  sentence  of  a  military  court 
the  majority  rule  obtains  ;  except  that  in  awarding 
the  death  penalty  two-thirds  of  the  members  of  the 
court  must  concur,  which  fact  must  appear  upon  the 
record. 

Besides  General  Courts-Martial,  which  have  juris- 
diction in  all  cases,  there  are  Garrison  and  Regi- 
mental courts.  These  have  jurisdiction  only  in 
cases  of  enlisted  men,  and  are  for  the  trial  of  minor 
offenses.  They  consist  of  three  members  and  a 
Judge  Advocate.  For  the  trial  of  trivial  offenses  a 
Summary  Court  is  now  provided  for,  consisting  of 
the  line  officer  next  in  rank  to  the  commanding 
officer.  No  one  can  be  tried  by  such  a  court  if  he 
objects  thereto,  nor  is  confinement  usually  imposed 
while  awaiting  trial. 

A  Military  Commission  is  a  criminal  war-court, 
which  can  have  existence  only  in  time  of  war,  when, 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY   SCIENCE.  165 

the  civil  courts  are  closed  and  their  processes  can  not 
be  served.  It  derives  its  jurisdiction  primarily  from 
the  law  of  war,  and  obtains  in  a  locality  where  mar- 
tial law  has  been  declared  by  proper  authority.  It 
can  take  cognizance  of  two  classes  of  offenses  com- 
mitted by  persons  not  in  the  military  service,  or  non- 
military  offenses  committed  by  soldiers  : 

(1)  Violations  of  the  laws  of  war,  such  as  conspir- 
acy or  intercourse  with  the  enemy,  making  and  fur- 
nishing arms  to  the  enemy,  violation  of  parole  by 
prisoners  of  war,  aiding  a  prisoner  to  escape,  cruel 
and  inhuman  treatment  of  prisoners  of  war,  burning, 
destroying  or  obstructing  bridges,  etc.  (2)  Civil 
crimes,  which,  because  the  courts  are  closed,  can  not 
be  taken  cognizance  of  by  the  ordinary  tribunals. 

In  short,  a  Military  Commission,  besides  exercis- 
ing under  the  laws  of  war  a  jurisdiction  over  offenses 
peculiar  to  war,  may  act  also  as  a  substitute,  for  the 
time  being,  for  the  regular  criminal  judicature  of  the 
State  or  district. 

It  consists  usually  of  three  members  and  a  Judge 
Advocate,  and  follows  in  its  proceedings  the  methods 
of  a  Court-Martial. 

Martial  Law  is  simply  the  military  authority 
exercised  according  to  the  rules  and  usages  of  war. 
It  can  only  be  declared  in  time  of  war,  insurrection, 
or  rebellion,  when  the  civil  courts  are  closed,  or 
when  it  becomes  necessary  to  subordinate  the  civil 


166  NOTE«    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 

to  tlie  military  power.  Martial  law  may  be  declared 
by  the  President,  by  Congress,  by  a  State,  or  by  an 
independent  military  commander. 

The  Militia  of  a  State  may  be  called  out  by  the 
Governor  and  certain  other  civil  officers  for  the  sup- 
pression of  riots  or  to  execute  processes  where  serious 
resistance  is  offered.  The  militia  may  also  be  called 
out  by  the  President  in  times  of  national  danger  for 
a  period  not  exceeding  nine  months. 

The  military  forces  of  the  United  States  can  not  be 
used  as  a  posse-corn itatus  to  enforce  the  laws  within  a 
State  {i.  e.,  in  cases  of  domestic  violence),  except 
called  for  by  the  Governor  of  that  State,  or  by  its 
Legislature  when  it  is  in  session. 

The  Federal  forces  may,  however,  enter  a  State  of 
their  own  motion  in  case  of  invasion  by  a  foreign 
power  and  insurrection  against  Federal  authority,, 
and  may  always  act  in  the  protection  of  Government 
property  and  to  {)revent  interference  with  the  mails. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 
THE  KRAG-JORGENSEN  RIFLE. 

(Page  53.) 

I^^HIS  arm  has  been  adopted  by  the  United  States, 
manufactured  and  issuerl  to  the  troops  of  the 
regular  service. 

Like  nearly  every  other  military  arm  now  in  use, 
this  is  a  bolt  gun, — that  is,  the  opening  and  closing 
of  the  breech  is  effected  by  a  bolt  moving  in  a  direct 
horizontal  line  with  the  bore,  carrying  the  firing-piti 
and  the  necessary  spring-mechanism  for  discharging 
the  piece. 

The  plate  on  page  169  shows  the  principal  feat- 
ures of  the  arm.  Fig.  1,  a  longitudinal  section  of 
the  breech  mechanism,  J  actual  size,  shows  the 
piece  ready  for  firing.  Fig.  2  is  a  cross-section  of 
the  magazine,  and  Fig.  3  shows  the  rifle  complete. 

To  load  the  piece  the  bolt  handle  is  thrown  up 
to  the  vertical  position.  This  movement  partially 
compresses  the  main-spring,  unlocks  the  bolt  and 
starts  the  empty  cartridge  case  from  its  seat.  By 
pulling  the  bolt  to  the  rear  the  empty  shell  is 
thrown  out  and  a  fresh  cartridge  admitted  from  the 
magazine,  unless  the  cut-off  is  on,  in  which  case  the 
chamber  remains  open  for  the  insertion  of  a  car- 

(167) 


168  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIKNCE. 

tridge  with  the  fingers  from  the  top.  In  returning 
the  bolt  to  its  original  position  the  new  cartridge  is 
shoved  into  the  chamber,  final  compression  given 
to  the  main-spring  and  the  piece  fully  cocked. 

The  magazine  is  a  fixed  horizontal  box  holding 
five  cartridges,  and  is  filled  through  a  gate  on  the 
right  side,  the  cartridges  being  forced  up  into  the 
chamber  by  a  spring.  To  use  the  piece  as  a  single- 
loader  the  mouth  of  the  magazine  is  closed  by  a 
gate  or  cut-off,  after  which  it  is  manipulated  like 
any  other  single-loading  arm. 

The  rifle  is  sighted  to  1,900  yards.  Its  extreme 
range  is  more  than  double  this  distance.  It  has  a 
calibre  of  .30  inches,  and  a  weight,  without  bayonet, 
of  about  9|  pounds.  The  bayonet  weighs  a  trifle 
less  than  a  pound.  It  is  rifled  with  four  shallow 
grooves  of  a  uniform  twist  of  one  turn  in  10  inches. 

The  cartridge  consists  of  a  bullet  of  hardened  lead 
covered  with  a  jacket  of  cupro-nickled  steel,  weigh- 
ing 220  grains.  The  charge  for  an  initial  velocit}^ 
of  2,000  feet  per  second  is  43  grains  of  smokeless 
(Peyton)  powder.  The  cartridge  complete  weighs 
412  grains.  It  is  intended  that  the  soldier  shall 
carry  in  his  Ijelt  100  rounds  of  this  amnumition. 

Tested  for  raj)idity  of  fire  this  rifle,  in  the  hands 
of  trained  but  not  expert  soldiers,  delivered  15 
aimed  shots,  loaded  from  the  belt,  in  1  minute  and 
24  seconds;  the  magazine  being  then  turned  on,  its 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 


169 


Plate  XX. 


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170  NOTES    ON    MILITAEY    SCIENCK. 

5  cartridges  were  fired  in  24  seconds.  At  close  range 
the  bullet  has  penetrated  50  inches  of  pine  plank  ; 
32  inches  of  oak  plank  ;  a  § -inch  iron  plate. 

The  carbine  is  identical  in  construction  with  the 
rifle,  except  that  it  is  not  provided  with  a  bayonet, 
is  of  shorter  barrel  and  has  almost  two  pounds  less 
weight. 

This  arm  is  officially  known  as  the  "  U.  S.  Maga- 
zine Rifle  and  Carbine  (Calibre  30),  Model  1892." 


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172 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY    SCIENCE. 


AMMUNITION  SUPPLY. 

(Page  59.) 

The  following  table  will  show  the  amount  of  am- 
munition supplied  to  an  army  in  the  field,  armed 
w4th  the  small-calibre  rifle,  by  some  of  tlie  Euro- 
pean powers.  From  the  compan}',  battalion  or  regi- 
mental wagons,  which  ai:)proach  as  near  as  possible, 
men  are  depended  upon  to  carry  the  ammunition 
forward  to  the  fighting  line.  All  that  carried  by 
the  division  and  cor23s  trains  would  probably  be 
available  in  a  prolonged  action. 


Bj  the  Soldier  100        1 


By  Company,  Battalion  or  Reg- 
mental  wagons,  and  at  once 
available •. 42  44 


By  Division  Train. 

By  Corps  Train 

Army  Depot  


Total  supply 268 


57 
44 
25 


307 


120 


68 
69 
48.5 
110 


50 


415.5 


80 
20 


270 


150 

76 
100 

18 
170 


514 


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